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We have previously elucidated the signaling events that are required for TGF?1 autoinduction (Yue, J., and Mulder, K. M. (2000) J. Biol. Chem. 275, 30765?30773). Further, we have reported that the TGF? receptor (T?R)-interacting protein km23?1 plays an important role in TGF? signal transduction (Jin et al., 2007, J. Biol. Chem. 282, 19122?19132). Here we examined the role of km23?1 in TGF?1 autoinduction in TGF??sensitive epithelial cells. Small interfering RNA (siRNA) blockade of km23?1 reduced TGF?1 mRNA expression, as well as DNA binding and transcriptional activation of the relevant activator protein?1 (AP?1) site in the human TGF?1 promoter. Further, knockdown of km23?1 inhibited TGF??mediated activation of extracellular signal?regulated kinase (ERK) and Jun N?terminal kinase (JNK), phosphorylation of c?Jun, and transactivation of the c?Jun promoter. Sucrose gradient analyses indicate that km23?1 was present in lipid rafts together with Ras and T?RII after TGF? treatment. Immunoprecipitation (IP)/blot analyses revealed the formation of a TGF??inducible complex between Ras and km23?1 in vivo within minutes of TGF? addition. Moreover, we demonstrate for the first time that km23?1 is required for Ras activation by TGF?. Our results indicate that km23-1 is required for TGF?1 autoinduction through Smad2?independent Ras/ERK/JNK pathways. More importantly, our findings demonstrate that km23?1 functions as a critical adaptor coupling T?R activation to activation of Ras effector pathways downstream.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/JBC_PapersInPress/~4/aSCY-a7tXVk" height="1" width="1"/>
Centromere protein E, CENP-E, is a kinetochore-associated kinesin-7 that establishes the microtubule-chromosome linkage and transports monooriented chromosomes to the spindle equator along kinetochore fibers of already bioriented chromosomes. As a processive kinesin, CENP-E uses a hand-over-hand mechanism, yet a number of studies suggest that CENP-E exhibits mechanistic differences from other processive kinesins that may be important for its role in chromosome congression. The results reported here show that association of CENP-E with the microtubule is unusually slow at 0.08 ?M-1s-1 followed by slow ADP release at 0.9 s-1. ATP binding and hydrolysis are fast with motor dissociation from the microtubule at 1.4 s-1, suggesting that CENP-E head detachment from the microtubule, possibly controlled by phosphate release, determines the rate of stepping during a processive run because the rate of microtubule gliding corresponds to 1.4 steps/s. We hypothesize that the unusually slow CENP-E microtubule association step favors CENP-E binding of stable microtubules over dynamic ones, a mechanism that would bias CENP-E binding to kinetochore fibers.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/JBC_PapersInPress/~4/NVy5BsNfNFI" height="1" width="1"/>
The G146V mutation in actin is dominant lethal in yeast. G146V actin filaments bind cofilin only minimally, presumably because cofilin binding requires the large and small actin domains to twist with respect to one another around the hinge region containing Gly146, and the mutation inhibits that twisting motion. A number of studies have suggested that force generation by myosin also requires actin filaments to undergo conformational changes. This prompted us to examine the effects of the G146V mutation on myosin motility. Compared to wild-type actin filaments, G146V filaments showed a 78% slower gliding velocity and a 70% smaller stall force on surfaces coated with skeletal heavy meromyosin. In contrast, the G146V mutation had no effect on either gliding velocity or stall force on myosin V surfaces. Kinetic analyses of actin-myosin binding and ATPase activity indicated that the weaker affinity of actin filaments for myosin heads carrying ADP, as well as reduced actin-activated ATPase activity, are the cause of the diminished motility seen with skeletal myosin. Interestingly, the G146V mutation disrupted cooperative binding of myosin II heads to actin filaments. These data suggest that myosin-induced conformational changes in the actin filaments, presumably around the hinge region, are involved in mediating the motility of skeletal myosin but not myosin V, and that the specific structural requirements for the actin subunits, and thus the mechanism of motility, differ among myosin classes.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/JBC_PapersInPress/~4/G1fwLWD8rjk" height="1" width="1"/>
Spastin is a hexameric ring AAA ATPase that severs microtubules. To see whether the ring complex funnels the energy of multiple ATP hydrolysis events to the site of mechanical action, we investigate here the cooperativity of spastin. Several lines of evidence indicate that interactions among two subunits dominate the cooperative behavior: (i) the ATPase activity shows a sigmoidal dependence on the ATP concentration; (ii) ATP-?S displays a mixed-inhibition behavior for normal ATP turnover; and (iii) inactive mutant subunits inhibit the activity of spastin in a hyperbolic dependence, characteristic for two interacting species. A quantitative model based on neighbor interactions fits mutant titration experiments well, suggesting that each subunit is mainly influenced by one of its neighbors. These observations are relevant for patients suffering from SPG4-type hereditary spastic paraplegia, and explain why single amino acid exchanges lead to a dominant-negative phenotype. In severing assays, wildtype spastin is even more sensitive towards the presence of inactive mutants than in enzymatic assays, suggesting a weak coupling of ATPase and severing activity.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/JBC_PapersInPress/~4/2sPXX-IU8X0" height="1" width="1"/>
Vitamin A (all-trans-retinol) must be adequately distributed within the mammalian body to produce visual chromophore in the eyes and all-trans-retinoic acid in other tissues. Vitamin A is transported in the blood bound to retinol-binding protein (holo-RBP) and its target cells express an RBP receptor encoded by the stimulated by retinoic acid 6 gene (Stra6). Here we show in mice that cellular uptake of vitamin A from holo-RBP depends on functional coupling of STRA6 with intracellular lecithin:retinol acyl-transferase (LRAT). Thus, vitamin A uptake from recombinant holo-RBP exhibited by wild type mice was impaired in Lrat-/- mice. We further provide evidence that vitamin A uptake is regulated by all-trans-retinoic acid in non-ocular tissues of mice. When in excess, vitamin A was rapidly taken up and converted to its inert ester form in peripheral tissues such as lung, whereas in vitamin A deficiency ocular retinoid uptake was favored. Finally, we show that the drug fenretinide, used clinically to presumably lower blood RBP levels and thus decrease circulating retinol, targets the functional coupling of STRA6 and LRAT to increase cellular vitamin A uptake in peripheral tissues. These studies provide mechanistic insights into how vitamin A is distributed to peripheral tissues in a regulated manner and identify LRAT as a critical component of this process.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/JBC_PapersInPress/~4/qXVLEEGo8B0" height="1" width="1"/>
Archaeal promoters consist of a TATA box and a purine-rich adjacent upstream sequence (transcription factor B (TFB)-responsive element (BRE)), which are bound by the transcription factors TATA box-binding protein (TBP) and TFB. Currently, only a few activators of archaeal transcription have been experimentally characterized. The best studied activator, Ptr2, mediates activation by recruitment of TBP. Here, we present a detailed biochemical analysis of an archaeal transcriptional activator, PF1088, which was identified in Pyrococcus furiosus by a bioinformatic approach. Operon predictions suggested that an upstream gene, pf1089, is polycistronically transcribed with pf1088. We demonstrate that PF1088 stimulates in vitro transcription by up to 7-fold when the pf1089 promoter is used as a template. By DNase I and hydroxyl radical footprinting experiments, we show that the binding site of PF1088 is located directly upstream of the BRE of pf1089. Mutational analysis indicated that activation requires the presence of the binding site for PF1088. Furthermore, we show that activation of transcription by PF1088 is dependent upon the presence of an imperfect BRE and is abolished when the pf1089 BRE is replaced with a BRE from a strong archaeal promoter. Gel shift experiments showed that TFB recruitment to the pf1089 operon is stimulated by PF1088, and TFB seems to stabilize PF1088 operator binding even in the absence of TBP. Taken together, these results represent the first biochemical evidence for a transcriptional activator working as a TFB recruitment factor in Archaea, for which the designation TFB-RF1 is suggested.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/1cqURzVTS2k" height="1" width="1"/>
Members of the PUF (Pumilio and FBF) and CPEB (cytoplasmic polyadenylation element-binding) protein families collaborate to regulate mRNA expression throughout eukaryotes. Here, we focus on the physical interactions between members of these two families, concentrating on Caenorhabditis elegans FBF-2 and CPB-1. To localize the site of interaction on FBF-2, we identified conserved amino acids within C. elegans PUF proteins. Deletion of an extended loop containing several conserved residues abolished binding to CPB-1. We analyzed alanine substitutions at 13 individual amino acids in FBF-2, each identified via its conservation. Multiple single point mutations disrupted binding to CPB-1 but not to RNA. Position Tyr-479 was particularly critical as multiple substitutions to other amino acids at this position did not restore binding. The complex of FBF-2 and CPB-1 repressed translation of an mRNA containing an FBF binding element. Repression required both proteins and was disrupted by FBF-2 alleles that failed to bind CPB-1 or RNA. The equivalent loop in human PUM2 is required for binding to human CPEB3 in vitro, although the primary sequences of the human and C. elegans PUF proteins have diverged in that region. Our findings define a key region in PUF/CPEB interactions and imply a conserved platform through which PUF proteins interact with their protein partners.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/kmoYr-vrJAw" height="1" width="1"/>
Most cellular RNAs engage in intrastrand base-pairing that gives rise to complex three-dimensional folds. This self-pairing presents an impediment toward binding of the RNA by nucleic acid-based ligands. An important step in the discovery of RNA-targeting ligands is therefore to identify those regions in a folded RNA that are accessible toward the nucleic acid-based ligand. Because the folding of RNA targets can involve interactions between nonadjacent regions and employ both Watson-Crick and non-Watson-Crick base-pairing, screening of candidate binder ensembles is typically necessary. Microarray-based screening approaches have shown great promise in this regard and have suggested that achieving complete sequence coverage would be a valuable attribute of a next generation system. Here, we report a custom microarray displaying a library of RNA-interacting polynucleotides comprising all possible 2?-OMe RNA sequences from 4- to 8-nucleotides in length. We demonstrate the utility of this array in identifying RNA-interacting polynucleotides that bind tightly and specifically to the highly conserved, functionally essential template/pseudoknot domain of human telomerase RNA and that inhibit telomerase function in vitro.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/8Ka4hCQ_7Mw" height="1" width="1"/>
VOLUME 287 (2012) PAGES 9910–9922
Dr. Najar's first name was misspelled. The correct spelling is shown above.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/nM7hDsypvpo" height="1" width="1"/>
Plasminogen is a 92-kDa single chain glycoprotein that circulates in plasma as a zymogen and when converted to proteolytically active plasmin dissolves preformed fibrin clots and extracellular matrix components. Here, we characterize the role of plasmin(ogen) in the complement cascade. Plasminogen binds the central complement protein C3, the C3 cleavage products C3b and C3d, and C5. Plasminogen binds to C3, C3b, C3d, and C5 via lysine residues, and the interaction is ionic strength-dependent. Plasminogen and Factor H bind C3b; however, the two proteins bind to different sites and do not compete for binding. Plasminogen affects complement action in multiple ways. Plasminogen enhanced Factor I-mediated C3b degradation in the presence of the cofactor Factor H. Plasminogen when activated to plasmin inhibited complement as demonstrated by hemolytic assays using either rabbit or sheep erythrocytes. Similarly, plasmin either in the fluid phase or attached to surfaces inhibited complement that was activated via the alternative and classical pathways and cleaved C3b to fragments of 68, 40, 30, and 17 kDa. The C3b fragments generated by plasmin differ in size from those generated by the complement protease Factor I, suggesting that plasmin-mediated C3b cleavage fragments lack effector function. Plasmin also cleaved C5 to products of 65, 50, 30, and 25 kDa. Thus, plasmin(ogen) regulates both complement and coagulation, the two central cascade systems of a vertebrate organism. This complement-inhibitory activity of plasmin provides a new explanation why pathogenic microbes utilize plasmin(ogen) for immune evasion and tissue penetration.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/9zcKMvt0xyM" height="1" width="1"/>
Although neuromedin U (NMU) has been implicated in analgesia, the detailed mechanisms still remain unclear. In this study, we identify a novel functional role of NMU type 1 receptor (NMUR1) in regulating the transient outward K+ currents (IA) in small dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons. We found that NMU reversibly increased IA in a dose-dependent manner, instead the sustained delayed rectifier K+ current (IDR) was not affected. This NMU-induced IA increase was pertussis toxin-sensitive and was totally reversed by NMUR1 knockdown. Intracellular application of GDP?S (guanosine 5?-O-(2-thiodiphosphate)), QEHA peptide, or a selective antibody raised against the G?o or G? blocked the stimulatory effects of NMU. Pretreatment of the cells with the protein kinase A (PKA) inhibitor or ERK inhibitor abolished the NMU-induced IA response, whereas inhibition of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase or PKC had no such effects. Exposure of DRG neurons to NMU markedly induced the phosphorylation of ERK (p-ERK), whereas p-JNK or p-p38 was not affected. Moreover, the NMU-induced p-ERK increase was attenuated by PKA inhibition and activation of PKA by foskolin would mimic the NMU-induced IA increase. Functionally, we observed a significant decrease of the firing rate of neuronal action potential induced by NMU and pretreatment of DRG neurons with 4-AP could abolish this effect. In summary, these results suggested that NMU increases IA via activation of NMUR1 that couples sequentially to the downstream activities of G?? of the Go protein, PKA, and ERK, which could contribute to its physiological functions including neuronal hypoexcitability in DRG neurons.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/WDPGj-8l_MY" height="1" width="1"/>
Skin cancer is the most common cancer in the United States. Its major environmental risk factor is UVB radiation in sunlight. In response to UVB damage, epidermal keratinocytes activate a specific repair pathway, i.e. nucleotide excision repair, to remove UVB-induced DNA lesions. However, the regulation of UVB response is not fully understood. Here we show that the long isoform of the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 1 (Nrf1, also called NFE2L1), a cytoprotective transcription factor critical for the expression of multiple antioxidant response element-dependent genes, plays an important role in the response of keratinocytes to UVB. Nrf1 loss sensitized keratinocytes to UVB-induced apoptosis by up-regulating the expression of the proapoptotic Bcl-2 family member Bik through reducing glutathione levels. Knocking down Bik reduced UVB-induced apoptosis in Nrf1-inhibited cells. In UVB-irradiated surviving cells, however, disruption of Nrf1 impaired nucleotide excision repair through suppressing the transcription of xeroderma pigmentosum C (XPC), a factor essential for initiating the global genome nucleotide excision repair by recognizing the DNA lesion and recruiting downstream factors. Nrf1 enhanced XPC expression by increasing glutathione availability but was independent of the transcription repressor of XPC. Adding XPC or glutathione restored the DNA repair capacity in Nrf1-inhibited cells. Finally, we demonstrate that Nrf1 levels are significantly reduced by UVB radiation in mouse skin and are lower in human skin tumors than in normal skin. These results indicate a novel role of Nrf1 in UVB-induced DNA damage repair and suggest Nrf1 as a tumor suppressor in the skin.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/o1pBlXZUdPE" height="1" width="1"/>
FoF1-ATP synthase (FoF1) synthesizes ATP in mitochondria coupled with proton flow driven by the proton motive force (pmf) across membranes. It has been known that isolated IF1, an evolutionarily well conserved mitochondrial protein, can inhibit the ATP hydrolysis activity of FoF1. Here, we generated HeLa cells with permanent IF1 knockdown (IF1-KD cells) and compared their energy metabolism with control cells. Under optimum growth conditions, IF1-KD cells have lower cellular ATP levels and generate a higher pmf and more reactive oxygen species. Nonetheless, IF1-KD cells and control cells show the same rates of cell growth, glucose consumption, and mitochondrial ATP synthesis. Furthermore, contrary to previous reports, the morphology of mitochondria in IF1-KD cells appears to be normal. When cells encounter sudden dissipation of pmf, the cytoplasmic ATP level in IF1-KD cells drops immediately (?1 min), whereas it remains unchanged in the control cells, indicating occurrence of futile ATP hydrolysis by FoF1 in the absence of IF1. The lowered ATP level in IF1-KD cells then recovers gradually (?10 min) to the original level by consuming more glucose than control cells. The viability of IF1-KD cells and control cells is the same in the absence of pmf. Thus, IF1 contributes to ATP homeostasis, but its deficiency does not affect the growth and survival of HeLa cells. Only when cells are exposed to chemical ischemia (no glycolysis and no respiration) or high concentrations of reactive oxygen species does IF1 exhibit its ability to alleviate cell injury.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/Ma7cZ3QGMG4" height="1" width="1"/>
Leucine aminopeptidases (LAPs) are present in animals, plants, and microbes. In plants, there are two classes of LAPs. The neutral LAPs (LAP-N and its orthologs) are constitutively expressed and detected in all plants, whereas the stress-induced acidic LAPs (LAP-A) are expressed only in a subset of the Solanaceae. LAPs have a role in insect defense and act as a regulator of the late branch of wound signaling in Solanum lycopersicum (tomato). Although the mechanism of LAP-A action is unknown, it has been presumed that LAP peptidase activity is essential for regulating wound signaling. Here we show that plant LAPs are bifunctional. Using three assays to monitor protein protection from heat-induced damage, it was shown that the tomato LAP-A and LAP-N and the Arabidopsis thaliana LAP1 and LAP2 are molecular chaperones. Assays using LAP-A catalytic site mutants demonstrated that LAP-A chaperone activity was independent of its peptidase activity. Furthermore, disruption of the LAP-A hexameric structure increased chaperone activity. Together, these data identify a new class of molecular chaperones and a new function for the plant LAPs as well as suggesting new mechanisms for LAP action in the defense of solanaceous plants against stress.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/Bmf1RvTpNR0" height="1" width="1"/>
DREAM is a Ca2+-dependent transcriptional repressor highly expressed in neuronal cells. A number of genes have already been identified as the target of its regulation. Targeted analysis performed on cerebella from transgenic mice expressing a dominant active DREAM mutant (daDREAM) showed a drastic reduction of the amount of transcript of Ca2+-activated nucleotidase 1 (CANT1), an endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-Golgi resident Ca2+-dependent nucleoside diphosphatase that has been suggested to have a role in glucosylation reactions related to the quality control of proteins in the ER and the Golgi apparatus. CANT1 down-regulation was also found in neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells stably overexpressing wild type (wt) DREAM or daDREAM, thus providing a simple cell model to investigate the protein maturation pathway. Pulse-chase experiments demonstrated that the down-regulation of CANT1 is associated with reduced protein secretion and increased degradation rates. Importantly, overexpression of wtDREAM or daDREAM augmented the expression of the EDEM1 gene, which encodes a key component of the ER-associated degradation pathway, suggesting an alternative pathway to enhanced protein degradation. Restoring CANT1 levels in neuroblastoma clones recovered the phenotype, thus confirming a key role of CANT1, and of the regulation of its gene by DREAM, in the control of protein synthesis and degradation.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/PLLmNFxL2QE" height="1" width="1"/>
mTOR complex 1 (mTORC1) is a multiprotein complex that integrates diverse signals including growth factors, nutrients, and stress to control cell growth. Raptor is an essential component of mTORC1 that functions to recruit specific substrates. Recently, Raptor was suggested to be a key target of regulation of mTORC1. Here, we show that Raptor is phosphorylated by JNK upon osmotic stress. We identified that osmotic stress induces the phosphorylation of Raptor at Ser-696, Thr-706, and Ser-863 using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. We found that JNK is responsible for the phosphorylation. The inhibition of JNK abolishes the phosphorylation of Raptor induced by osmotic stress in cells. Furthermore, JNK physically associates with Raptor and phosphorylates Raptor in vitro, implying that JNK is responsible for the phosphorylation of Raptor. Finally, we found that osmotic stress activates mTORC1 kinase activity in a JNK-dependent manner. Our findings suggest that the molecular link between JNK and Raptor is a potential mechanism by which stress regulates the mTORC1 signaling pathway.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/OXfr0uBwuxw" height="1" width="1"/>
The ureide pathway has recently been identified as the metabolic route of purine catabolism in plants and some bacteria. In this pathway, uric acid, which is a major product of the early stage of purine catabolism, is degraded into glyoxylate and ammonia via stepwise reactions of seven different enzymes. Therefore, the pathway has a possible physiological role in mobilization of purine ring nitrogen for further assimilation. (S)-Ureidoglycine aminohydrolase enzyme converts (S)-ureidoglycine into (S)-ureidoglycolate and ammonia, providing the final substrate to the pathway. Here, we report a structural and functional analysis of this enzyme from Arabidopsis thaliana (AtUGlyAH). The crystal structure of AtUGlyAH in the ligand-free form shows a monomer structure in the bicupin fold of the ?-barrel and an octameric functional unit as well as a Mn2+ ion binding site. The structure of AtUGlyAH in complex with (S)-ureidoglycine revealed that the Mn2+ ion acts as a molecular anchor to bind (S)-ureidoglycine, and its binding mode dictates the enantioselectivity of the reaction. Further kinetic analysis characterized the functional roles of the active site residues, including the Mn2+ ion binding site and residues in the vicinity of (S)-ureidoglycine. These analyses provide molecular insights into the structure of the enzyme and its possible catalytic mechanism.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/VM3IYsTt3-Q" height="1" width="1"/>
LKB1 is a Ser/Thr kinase, and its activity is regulated by the pseudokinase, STE20-related adaptor ? (STRAD?). The STRAD?-LKB1 pathway plays critical roles in epithelial cell polarity, neuronal polarity, and cancer metastasis. Though much attention is given to the STRAD?-LKB1 pathway, the function of STRAD? itself, including a role outside of the LKB1 pathway, has not been well-studied. Data in Caenorhabditis elegans suggest that STRAD? has an LKB1-independent role in regulating cell polarity, and therefore we tested the hypothesis that STRAD? regulates cancer cell polarity and motility when wild-type LKB1 is absent. These results show that STRAD? protein is reduced in LKB1-null cell lines (mutation or homozygous deletion) and this partial degradation occurs through the Hsp90-dependent proteasome pathway. The remaining STRAD? participates in cell polarity and invasion, such that STRAD? depletion results in misaligned lamellipodia, improper Golgi positioning, and reduced invasion. To probe the molecular basis of this defect, we show that STRAD? associates in a complex with PAK1, and STRAD? loss disrupts PAK1 activity via Thr423 PAK1 phosphorylation. When STRAD? is depleted, PAK1-induced invasion could not occur, suggesting that STRAD? is necessary for PAK1 to drive motility. Furthermore, STRAD? overexpression caused increased activity of the PAK1-activating protein, rac1, and a constitutively active rac1 mutant (Q61L) rescued pPAKThr423 and STRAD? invasion defects. Taken together, these results show that a STRAD?-rac1-PAK1 pathway regulates cell polarity and invasion in LKB1-null cells. It also suggests that while the function of LKB1 and STRAD? undoubtedly overlap, they may also have mutually exclusive roles.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/DtzhXxf59Ao" height="1" width="1"/>
Ibogaine, a hallucinogenic alkaloid proposed as a treatment for opiate withdrawal, has been shown to inhibit serotonin transporter (SERT) noncompetitively, in contrast to all other known inhibitors, which are competitive with substrate. Ibogaine binding to SERT increases accessibility in the permeation pathway connecting the substrate-binding site with the cytoplasm. Because of the structural similarity between ibogaine and serotonin, it had been suggested that ibogaine binds to the substrate site of SERT. The results presented here show that ibogaine binds to a distinct site, accessible from the cell exterior, to inhibit both serotonin transport and serotonin-induced ionic currents. Ibogaine noncompetitively inhibited transport by both SERT and the homologous dopamine transporter (DAT). Ibogaine blocked substrate-induced currents also in DAT and increased accessibility of the DAT cytoplasmic permeation pathway. When present on the cell exterior, ibogaine inhibited SERT substrate-induced currents, but not when it was introduced into the cytoplasm through the patch electrode. Similar to noncompetitive transport inhibition, the current block was not reversed by increasing substrate concentration. The kinetics of inhibitor binding and dissociation, as determined by their effect on SERT currents, indicated that ibogaine does not inhibit by forming a long-lived complex with SERT, but rather binds directly to the transporter in an inward-open conformation. A kinetic model for transport describing the noncompetitive action of ibogaine and the competitive action of cocaine accounts well for the results of the present study.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/97ZYX8lzxNE" height="1" width="1"/>
Zaragozic acids (ZAs) belong to a family of fungal metabolites with nanomolar inhibitory activity toward squalene synthase (SQS). The enzyme catalyzes the committed step of sterol synthesis and has attracted attention as a potential target for antilipogenic and antiinfective therapies. Here, we have determined the structure of ZA-A complexed with human SQS. ZA-A binding induces a local conformational change in the substrate binding site, and its C-6 acyl group also extends over to the cofactor binding cavity. In addition, ZA-A effectively inhibits a homologous bacterial enzyme, dehydrosqualene synthase (CrtM), which synthesizes the precursor of staphyloxanthin in Staphylococcus aureus to cope with oxidative stress. Size reduction at Tyr248 in CrtM further increases the ZA-A binding affinity, and it reveals a similar overall inhibitor binding mode to that of human SQS/ZA-A except for the C-6 acyl group. These structures pave the way for further improving selectivity and development of a new generation of anticholesterolemic and antimicrobial inhibitors.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/wIYBhOqULXM" height="1" width="1"/>
VOLUME 286 (2011) PAGES 28312–28321
The following footnote should be included in the article: “This work was supported in part by the Bioinformatics and Genomics Core Facility at the Maine Medical Center Research Institute, which was supported by 5P20RR0018789 (principal investigator, Don Wojchowski) from the National Center for Research Resources at the National Institutes of Health.”<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/iima2XLnyrs" height="1" width="1"/>
Obesity-associated hepatic steatosis is a manifestation of selective insulin resistance whereby lipogenesis remains sensitive to insulin but the ability of insulin to suppress glucose production is impaired. We created a mouse model of liver-specific knockdown of p70 S6 kinase (S6K) (L-S6K-KD) by systemic delivery of an adeno-associated virus carrying a shRNA for S6K and examined the effects on steatosis and insulin resistance. High fat diet (HFD) fed L-S6K-KD mice showed improved glucose tolerance and systemic insulin sensitivity compared with controls, with no changes in food intake or body weight. The induction of lipogenic gene expression was attenuated in the L-S6K-KD mice with decreased sterol regulatory element-binding protein (SREBP)-1c expression and mature SREBP-1c protein, as well as decreased steatosis on HFD. Our results demonstrate the importance of S6K: 1) as a modulator of the hepatic response to fasting/refeeding, 2) in the development of steatosis, and 3) as a key node in selective hepatic insulin resistance in obese mice.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/NyQlB_j5-Xo" height="1" width="1"/>
The cytokine IL-2 performs opposite functions supporting efficient immune responses and playing a key role in peripheral tolerance. Therefore, precise fine-tuning of IL-2 expression is crucial for adjusting the immune response. Combining transcription factor analysis at the single cell and the single nucleus level using flow cytometry with statistical analysis, we showed that physiological differences in the expression levels of c-Fos and NFATc2, but not of c-Jun and NF-?Bp65, are limiting for the decision whether IL-2 is expressed in a strongly activated human memory T-helper (Th) cell. Variation in the expression of c-Fos leads to substantial diversity of IL-2 expression in ?40% of the memory Th cells. The remaining cells exhibit an equally high c-Fos expression level, thereby ensuring robustness in IL-2 response within the population. These findings reveal how memory Th cells benefit from regulated variation in transcription factor expression to achieve a certain stability and variability of cytokine expression in a controlled manner.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/bXUhb6LLPIg" height="1" width="1"/>
The chromoshadow domain (CSD) of heterochromatin protein 1 (HP1) was recently shown to contribute to chromatin binding and transcriptional regulation through interaction with histone H3. Here, we demonstrate the structural basis of this interaction for the CSD of HP1?. This mode of H3 binding is dependent on dimerization of the CSD and recognition of a PxVxL-like motif, as for other CSD partners. NMR chemical shift mapping showed that the H3 residues that mediate the CSD interaction occur in and adjacent to the ?N helix just within the nucleosome core. Access to the binding region would require some degree of unwrapping of the DNA near the nucleosomal DNA entry/exit site.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/8aco0QGun8w" height="1" width="1"/>
Infiltrated macrophages may play important roles in the development and progression of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), but the underlying mechanisms remain largely unknown. We found increased macrophages infiltration in human and mouse BPH tissues. By establishing a co-culture transwell system, we found increased migration of macrophages and proliferation of prostate stromal cells during co-culture. Importantly, stromal androgen receptor (AR) could enhance the migration of macrophages and macrophage-mediated stromal cell proliferation. We identified CCL3 as an AR downstream player, and found CCL3 levels were notably increased in human and mouse BPH prostates. Ablation of prostate stromal AR in a mouse BPH model significantly reduced CCL3 expression levels in prostates. Consistently, targeting AR via an AR degradation enhancer, ASC-J9§, or neutralization of CCL3 with an antibody, resulted in suppression of macrophage migration and prostate stromal cell growth. Our study provides mechanistic insights on the regulation of prostate stromal cells by macrophages via stromal AR/CCL3 signaling pathways, which could potentially allow the development of therapeutic approaches for battling BPH with persistent inflammation.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/6NNsS0iGwOg" height="1" width="1"/>
Manganese is an essential trace element, whose intracellular levels need to be carefully regulated. Mn2+ acts as a cofactor for many enzymes and excess of Mn2+ is toxic. Alterations in Mn2+ homeostasis affect metabolic functions and mutations in the human Mn2+/Ca2+ transporter ATP2C1 have been linked to Hailey-Hailey disease. By deletion of the yeast orthologue PMR1 we have studied the impact of Mn2+ on cell cycle progression and show that an excess of cytosolic Mn2+ alters S-phase transit, induces transcriptional up-regulation of cell cycle regulators, bypasses the need for S-phase cell cycle checkpoints and predisposes to genomic instability. On the other hand, we find that depletion of the Golgi Mn2+ pool requires a functional morphology checkpoint to avoid the formation of polyploid cells.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/kYcLN-0DrkM" height="1" width="1"/>
PAA2/HMA8 (P-type ATPase of Arabidopsis/Heavy-metal-associated 8) is a thylakoid located copper (Cu)-transporter in Arabidopsis thaliana. In tandem with PAA1/HMA6, which is located in the inner chloroplast envelope, it supplies Cu to plastocyanin (PC), an essential cuproenzyme of the photosynthetic machinery. We investigated whether the chloroplast Cu transporters are affected by Cu addition to the growth media. Immunoblots showed that PAA2 protein abundance decreased significantly and specifically when Cu in the media was increased, while PAA1 remained unaffected. The function of SPL7, the transcriptional regulator of Cu homeostasis, was not required for this regulation of PAA2 protein abundance and Cu addition did not affect PAA2 transcript levels, as determined by qRT-PCR. We used the translational inhibitor cycloheximide to analyze turnover and observed that the stability of the PAA2 protein was decreased in plants grown with elevated Cu. Interestingly, PAA2 protein abundance was significantly increased in paa1 mutants, in which the Cu content in the chloroplast is half of that of the wild-type, due to impaired Cu import into the organelle. In contrast in a pc2 insertion mutant, which has strongly reduced plastocyanin expression, the PAA2 protein levels were low regardless of Cu addition to the growth media. Together, these data indicate that plastid Cu levels control PAA2 stability and that plastocyanin, which is the target of PAA2 mediated Cu delivery in thylakoids, is a major determinant of this regulatory mechanism.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/zLQhG7G_Z70" height="1" width="1"/>
The physiological role of DJ-1, a protein involved in familial Parkinson disease is still controversial. One of the hypotheses proposed indicates a sensor role for oxidative stress, through oxidation of a conserved cysteine residue (Cys-106). The association of DJ-1 mutations with Parkinson disease suggests a loss of function, specific to dopaminergic neurons. Under oxidative conditions, highly reactive dopamine quinones (DAQs) can be produced, which can modify cysteine residues. In cellular models, DJ-1 was found covalently modified by dopamine. We analyzed the structural modifications induced on human DJ-1 by DAQs in vitro. We described the structural perturbations induced by DAQ adduct formation on each of the three cysteine residues of DJ-1 using specific mutants. Cys-53 is the most reactive residue and forms a covalent dimer also in SH-SY5Y DJ-1-transfected cells, but modification of Cys-106 induces the most severe structural perturbations; Cys-46 is not reactive. The relevance of these covalent modifications to the several functions ascribed to DJ-1 is discussed in the context of the cell response to a dopamine-derived oxidative insult.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/iHrQiJTniUE" height="1" width="1"/>
The transient kinetic behavior of enzyme reactions prior to the establishment of steady state is a major source of mechanistic information, yet this approach has not been utilized for cellulases acting on their natural substrate, insoluble cellulose. Here, we elucidate the pre-steady-state regime for the exo-acting cellulase Cel7A using amperometric biosensors and an explicit model for processive hydrolysis of cellulose. This analysis allows the identification of a pseudo-steady-state period and quantification of a processivity number as well as rate constants for the formation of a threaded enzyme complex, processive hydrolysis, and dissociation, respectively. These kinetic parameters elucidate limiting factors in the cellulolytic process. We concluded, for example, that Cel7A cleaves about four glycosidic bonds/s during processive hydrolysis. However, the results suggest that stalling the processive movement and low off-rates result in a specific activity at pseudo-steady state that is 10–25-fold lower. It follows that the dissociation of the enzyme-substrate complex (half-time of ?30 s) is rate-limiting for the investigated system. We suggest that this approach can be useful in attempts to unveil fundamental reasons for the distinctive variability in hydrolytic activity found in different cellulase-substrate systems.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/acErY99TuI8" height="1" width="1"/>
The basement membrane between the epidermis and the dermis is indispensable for normal skin functions. It connects, and functionally separates, the epidermis and the dermis. To understand the suprastructural and functional basis of these connections, heterotypic supramolecular aggregates were isolated from the dermal-epidermal junction zone of human skin. Individual suprastructures were separated and purified by immunomagnetic beads, each recognizing a specific, molecular component of the aggregates. The molecular compositions of the suprastructures were determined by immunogold electron microscopy and immunoblotting. A composite of two networks was obtained from fibril-free suspensions by immunobeads recognizing either laminin 332 or collagen IV. After removal of perlecan-containing suprastructures or after enzyme digestion of heparan sulfate chains, a distinct network with a diffuse electron-optical appearance was isolated with magnetic beads coated with antibodies to collagen IV. The second network was more finely grained and comprised laminin 332 and laminins with ?5-chains. The core protein of perlecan was an exclusive component of this network whereas its heparan sulfate chains were integrated into the collagen IV-containing network. Nidogens 1 and 2 occurred in both networks but did not form strong molecular cross-bridges. Their incorporation into one network appeared to be masked after their incorporation into the other one. We conclude that the epidermal basement membrane is a composite of two structurally independent networks that are tightly connected in a spot-welding-like manner by perlecan-containing aggregates.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/v7toxpqVzyU" height="1" width="1"/>
In the cytoplasm of mammalian cells, either cap-binding proteins 80 and 20 (CBP80/20) or eukaryotic translation initiation factor (eIF) 4E can direct the initiation of translation. Although the recruitment of ribosomes to mRNAs during eIF4E-dependent translation (ET) is well characterized, the molecular mechanism for CBP80/20-dependent translation (CT) remains obscure. Here, we show that CBP80/20-dependent translation initiation factor (CTIF), which has been shown to be preferentially involved in CT but not ET, specifically interacts with eIF3g, a component of the eIF3 complex involved in ribosome recruitment. By interacting with eIF3g, CTIF serves as an adaptor protein to bridge the CBP80/20 and the eIF3 complex, leading to efficient ribosome recruitment during CT. Accordingly, down-regulation of CTIF using a small interfering RNA causes a redistribution of CBP80 from polysome fractions to subpolysome fractions, without significant consequence to eIF4E distribution. In addition, down-regulation of eIF3g inhibits the efficiency of nonsense-mediated mRNA decay, which is tightly coupled to CT but not to ET. Moreover, the artificial tethering of CTIF to an intercistronic region of dicistronic mRNA results in translation of the downstream cistron in an eIF3-dependent manner. These findings support the idea that CT mechanistically differs from ET.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/VDp31jaJ0e4" height="1" width="1"/>
As the upstream component of the ESCRT (endosomal sorting complexes required for transport) machinery, the ESCRT-0 complex is responsible for directing ubiquitinated membrane proteins to the multivesicular body pathway. ESCRT-0 is formed by two subunits known as Hrs (hepatocyte growth factor-regulated substrate) and STAM (signal transducing adaptor molecule), both of which harbor multiple ubiquitin-binding domains (UBDs). In particular, STAM2 possesses two UBDs, the VHS (Vps27/Hrs/Stam) and UIM (ubiquitin interacting motif) domains, connected by a 20-amino acid flexible linker. In the present study, we report the interactions of the UIM domain and VHS-UIM construct of STAM2 with monoubiquitin (Ub), Lys48- and Lys63-linked diubiquitins. Our results demonstrate that the UIM domain alone binds monoubiquitin, Lys48- and Lys63-linked diubiquitins with the same affinity and in the same binding mode. Interestingly, binding of VHS-UIM to Lys63-linked diubiquitin is not only avid, but also cooperative. We also show that the distal domain of Lys63-linked diubiquitin stabilizes the helical structure of the UIM domain and that the corresponding complex adopts a specific structural organization responsible for its greater affinity. In contrast, binding of VHS-UIM to Lys48-linked diubiquitin and monoubiquitin is not cooperative and does not show any avidity. These results may explain the better sorting efficiency of some cargoes polyubiquitinated with Lys63-linked chains over monoubiquitinated cargoes or those tagged with Lys48-linked chains.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/eJQIv-FBpmE" height="1" width="1"/>
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are crucial in macrophage phagocytosis, which is pivotal in host innate immune response. However, the detailed mechanism is not fully defined. Here, we demonstrated that the induction of Src and Eps8 in LPS-treated macrophages was TLR4- and MyD88-dependent, and their attenuation reduced LPS-promoted phagocytosis. Confocal microscopy indicated the colocalization of Eps8 and TLR4 in the cytosol and at the phagosome. Consistently, both Eps8 and TLR4 were present in the same immunocomplex regardless of LPS stimulation. Inhibition of this complex formation by eps8 siRNA or overexpression of pleckstrin homology domain-truncated Eps8 (i.e. 261-p97Eps8) decreased LPS-induced TLR4-MyD88 interaction and the following activation of Src, focal adhesion kinase, and p38 MAPK. Importantly, attenuation of Eps8 impaired the bacterium-killing ability of macrophages. Thus, Eps8 is a key regulator of the LPS-stimulated TLR4-MyD88 interaction and contributes to macrophage phagocytosis.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/GkDAbI9tzWI" height="1" width="1"/>
Microorganisms such as plant pathogens secrete glycoside hydrolases (GHs) to digest the polysaccharide chains of plant cell walls. The degradation of cell walls by these enzymes is a crucial step for nutrition and invasion. To protect the cell wall from these enzymes, plants secrete glycoside hydrolase inhibitor proteins (GHIPs). Xyloglucan-specific endo-?-1,4-glucanase (XEG), a member of GH family 12 (GH12), could be a great threat to many plants because xyloglucan is a major component of the cell wall in most plants. Understanding the inhibition mechanism of XEG by GHIP is therefore of great importance in the field of plant defense, but to date the mechanism and specificity of GHIPs remain unclear. We have determined the crystal structure of XEG in complex with extracellular dermal glycoprotein (EDGP), a carrot GHIP that inhibits XEG. The structure reveals that the conserved arginines of EDGP intrude into the active site of XEG and interact with the catalytic glutamates of the enzyme. We have also determined the crystal structure of the XEG-xyloglucan complex. These structures show that EDGP closely mimics the XEG-xyloglucan interaction. Although EDGP shares structural similarity to a wheat GHIP (Triticum aestivum xylanase inhibitor-IA (TAXI-IA)) that inhibits GH11 family xylanases, the arrangement of GH and GHIP in the XEG-EDGP complex is distinct from that in the xylanase-TAXI-IA complex. Our findings imply that plants have evolved structures of GHIPs to inhibit different GH family members that attack their cell walls.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/RLVb_MJeBhQ" height="1" width="1"/>
Cdc6 is the bifunctional AAA+ ATPase that assembles prereplicative complexes on origins of replication and activates p21CIP1- or p27KIP1-bound Cdk2. During the G1-S transition, the Cdc6 gene essential for chromosomal replication is activated by the E2F transcriptional factor. Paradoxically, Apaf-1 encoding the central component of the apoptosome is also activated at the same time and by E2F. Consequently, genes for antipodal life and death are regulated in the same manner by the same transcriptional factor. Here we report a striking solution to this paradox. Besides performing prereplicative complex assembly and Cdk2 activation, Cdc6 obstructed apoptosome assembly by forming stable complexes very likely with a monomer of cytochrome c-activated Apaf-1 molecules. This function depended on its own ATPase domain but not on the cyclin-binding motif. In proliferating rodent fibroblasts, Cdc6 continued to block apoptosome assembly induced by a non-cytochrome c or some other mechanism, suppressing seemingly unintended apoptosis when promoting cell proliferation. Thus, Cdc6 is an AAA+ ATPase with three functions, all working for life.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/KFd8kDkavlg" height="1" width="1"/>
Nanog and FAK were shown to be overexpressed in cancer cells. In this report, the Nanog overexpression increased FAK expression in 293, SW480, and SW620 cancer cells. Nanog binds the FAK promoter and up-regulates its activity, whereas Nanog siRNA decreases FAK promoter activity and FAK mRNA. The FAK promoter contains four Nanog-binding sites. The site-directed mutagenesis of these sites significantly decreased up-regulation of FAK promoter activity by Nanog. EMSA showed the specific binding of Nanog to each of the four sites, and binding was confirmed by ChIP assay. Nanog directly binds the FAK protein by pulldown and immunoprecipitation assays, and proteins co-localize by confocal microscopy. Nanog binds the N-terminal domain of FAK. In addition, FAK directly phosphorylates Nanog in a dose-dependent manner by in vitro kinase assay and in cancer cells in vivo. The site-directed mutagenesis of Nanog tyrosines, Y35F and Y174F, blocked phosphorylation and binding by FAK. Moreover, overexpression of wild type Nanog increased filopodia/lamellipodia formation, whereas mutant Y35F and Y174F Nanog did not. The wild type Nanog increased cell invasion that was inhibited by the FAK inhibitor and increased by FAK more significantly than with the mutants Y35F and Y174F Nanog. Down-regulation of Nanog with siRNA decreased cell growth reversed by FAK overexpression. Thus, these data demonstrate the regulation of the FAK promoter by Nanog, the direct binding of the proteins, the phosphorylation of Nanog by FAK, and the effect of FAK and Nanog cross-regulation on cancer cell morphology, invasion, and growth that plays a significant role in carcinogenesis.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/Aklj5t6VACs" height="1" width="1"/>
Influenza A virus (IAV) induces apoptosis of infected cells. In response to IAV infection, p53, a tumor suppressor involved in regulating apoptosis and host antiviral defense, accumulates and becomes activated. This study was undertaken to examine the mechanism of p53 accumulation in IAV-infected cells. Here we show that p53 accumulation in IAV-infected cells results from protein stabilization, which was associated with compromised Mdm2-mediated ubiquitination of p53. In IAV-infected cells, p53 was stabilized and its half-life was remarkably extended. The ladders of polyubiquitinated p53 were not detectable in the presence of the proteasome inhibitor MG132 and were less sensitive to proteasome-mediated degradation. IAV infection did not affect the abundance of Mdm2, a major ubiquitin E3 ligase responsible for regulating p53 ubiquitination and degradation, but weakened the interaction between p53 and Mdm2. Viral nucleoprotein (NP) was able to increase the transcriptional activity and stability of p53. Furthermore, NP was found to associate with p53 and to impair the p53-Mdm2 interaction and Mdm2-mediated p53 ubiquitination, demonstrating its role in inhibiting Mdm2-mediated p53 ubiquitination and degradation.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/WVkrJsa1Yk0" height="1" width="1"/>
? See referenced article, J. Biol. Chem. 2012, 287, 18636–18644 ? See referenced article, J. Biol. Chem. 2012, 287, 18645–18654 Gyrase is a bacterial DNA topoisomerase that negatively supercoils DNA using ATP. A feature that differentiates gyrase from its eukaryotic counterparts is a specialized DNA binding and wrapping domain, the CTD, which promotes the supercoiling reaction. In two accompanying Papers of the Week, Elsa M. Tretter and James M. Berger from the University of California at Berkeley describe new insights into the molecular mechanisms of gyrase. In the first paper, the investigators show that a nonconserved acidic tail attached to the CTD of E. coli gyrase regulates the domain's ability to bind and wrap DNA; this property further enables the gyrase to tightly couple ATP turnover with DNA supercoiling. In the second paper, Tretter and Berger delve into why E. coli gyrase supercoils DNA more efficiently and more densely than M. tuberculosis gyrase. They discovered that although the CTDs of both enzymes are structurally comparable, M. tuberculosis gyrase lacks the acidic tail seen in E. coli gyrase and hydrolyzes ATP at a much slower rate. The authors conclude, “Our observations demonstrate that gyrase has been modified in multiple ways throughout evolution to fine-tune its specific catalytic properties.” jbc;287/22/18655/FU1F1FU1 The schematic compares the relative supercoiling set points of characterized bacterial type IIA topoisomerases and the characteristics that are thought to modify enzyme output. Topo IV relaxes and decatenates interlinked DNAs. E. coli gyrase can negatively supercoil DNA both rapidly and...<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/IRpL8jPoteQ" height="1" width="1"/>
FOXC1 and FOXC2 are forkhead transcription factors that play essential roles during development and physiology. Despite their critical role, the mechanisms that regulate the function of these factors remain poorly understood. We have identified conserved motifs within a previously defined N-terminal negative regulatory region of FOXC1/C2 that conforms to the definition of synergy control or SC motifs. Because such motifs inhibit the activity of transcription factors by serving as sites of post-translational modification by small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO), we have examined whether FOXC1/C2 are targets of SUMOylation and probed the functional significance of this modification. We find that endogenous FOXC1 forms modified by SUMO2/3 can be detected. Moreover, in cell culture, all three SUMO isoforms are readily conjugated to FOXC1 and FOXC2. The modification can be reconstituted in vitro with purified components and can be reversed in vitro by treatment with the SUMO protease SENP2. SUMOylation of FOXC1 and FOXC2 occurs primarily on one consensus synergy control motif with minor contributions of a second, more degenerate site. Notably, although FOXC1 is also phosphorylated at multiple sites, disruption of sites immediately downstream of the SC motifs does not influence SUMOylation. Consistent with a negative functional role, SUMOylation-deficient mutants displayed higher transcriptional activity when compared with wild type forms despite comparable protein levels and subcellular localization. Thus, the findings demonstrate that SC motifs mediate the inhibitory function of this region by serving as sites for SUMOylation and reveal a novel mechanism for acute and reversible regulation of FOXC1/C2 function.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/KG0jp4W5S3o" height="1" width="1"/>
Tyrosine nitration is an important sequel of cellular signaling induced by reactive oxygen species. Cisplatin is an anti-neoplastic agent that damages the inner ear through reactive oxygen species and by the formation of DNA adducts. This study reveals a correlation between cisplatin-mediated hearing loss and nitroxidative modification of cochlear proteins and is the first to report nitration of Lmo4. Cisplatin induced a dose-dependent increase in hearing loss in Wistar rats. A 10-15-dB decrease in distortion product amplitude and massive loss of outer hair cells at the basal turn of the cochlea was observed 3 days post-treatment after a 16 mg/kg dose. Cisplatin induced nitration of cellular proteins within the organ of Corti, spiral ganglion, and stria vascularis, which are known targets of cisplatin ototoxicity. Nitration of a 76-kDa cochlear protein correlated with cisplatin dose. The nitrated protein was identified as Lmo4 (LIM domain only 4) by MALDI-TOF (matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time of flight) mass spectrometry and confirmed by reciprocal immunoprecipitation and immunoblotting. Co-localization of nitrotyrosine and Lmo4 was particularly high in outer hair cell nuclei after cisplatin treatment. Cochlear levels of Lmo4 were decreased in rats treated with cisplatin. In vitro studies supported the repression of Lmo4 in nitroxidative conditions and the induction of apoptosis upon repression of Lmo4. Inhibition of cochlear protein nitration prevented cisplatin-induced hearing loss. As Lmo4 is a transcriptional regulator that controls the choice between cell survival and cell death, these results support the hypothesis that nitration of Lmo4 influences cisplatin-induced ototoxicity.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/vslRk1GtJps" height="1" width="1"/>
Transglutaminase 2 (TG2) is a ubiquitously expressed enzyme that cross-links proteins and its overexpression, linked to a drug resistant phenotype, is commonly observed in cancer cells. Further, up-regulation of TG2 expression occurs during response to various forms of cell stress; however, the molecular mechanisms that drive inducible expression of the TG2 gene (TGM2) require elucidation. Here we show that genotoxic stress induces TG2 expression through the Ataxia-Telangiectasia, Mutated (ATM)/Nuclear Factor ? light chain enhancer of activated B cells (NF?B) signaling pathway. We further document that NF?B is both necessary and sufficient to drive constitutive TG2 expression in cultured cell lines. Additionally, shRNA-mediated knockdown or pharmacological inhibition of the ATM kinase results in reduced constitutive TG2 expression and NF?B transcriptional activity. We document that the NF?B subunit p65 (RelA) interacts with two independent consensus NF?B binding sites within the TGM2 promoter, that mutation of either site or pharmacological inhibition of NF?B reduces TGM2 promoter activity, and genotoxic stress drives heightened association of p65 with the TGM2 promoter. Finally, we observed that knockdown of either p65 or ATM in MDA-MB-468 breast cancer cells expressing recombinant TG2 partially reduces resistance to doxorubicin, indicating that the drug resistance linked to overexpression of TG2 functions, in part, through p65 and ATM. This work establishes a novel ATM-dependent signaling loop where TG2 and NF?B activate each other resulting in sustained activation of NF?B and acquisition of a drug-resistant phenotype.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/t9oxr1Y6cUM" height="1" width="1"/>
DNA topoisomerases manage chromosome supercoiling and organization in all cells. Gyrase, a prokaryotic type IIA topoisomerase, consumes ATP to introduce negative supercoils through a strand passage mechanism. All type IIA topoisomerases employ a similar set of catalytic domains for function; however, the activity and specificity of gyrase are augmented by a specialized DNA binding and wrapping element, termed the C-terminal domain (CTD), which is appended to its GyrA subunit. We have discovered that a nonconserved, acidic tail at the extreme C terminus of the Escherichia coli GyrA CTD has a dramatic and unexpected impact on gyrase function. Removal of the CTD tail enables GyrA to introduce writhe into DNA in the absence of GyrB, an activity exhibited by other GyrA orthologs, but not by wild-type E. coli GyrA. Strikingly, a “tail-less” gyrase holoenzyme is markedly impaired for DNA supercoiling capacity, but displays normal ATPase function. Our findings reveal that the E. coli GyrA tail regulates DNA wrapping by the CTD to increase the coupling efficiency between ATP turnover and supercoiling, demonstrating that CTD functions can be fine-tuned to control gyrase activity in a highly sophisticated manner.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/GPGbZqHC550" height="1" width="1"/>
Heme utilization by Pseudomonas aeruginosa involves several proteins required for internalization and degradation of heme. In the following report we provide the first direct in vivo evidence for the specific degradation of extracellular heme to biliverdin (BV) by the iron-regulated HemO. Moreover, through isotopic labeling (13C-heme) and electrospray ionization-MS analysis we have confirmed the regioselectivity and ratio of 13C-? and ?-BV IX (70:30) is identical in vivo to that previously observed for the purified protein. Furthermore, the 13C-BV IX? and BV IX? products are effluxed from the cell by an as yet unidentified transporter. Conversion of extracellular heme to BV is dependent solely on the iron-regulated HemO as evidenced by the lack of BV production in the P. aeruginosa hemO deletion strain. Complementation of P. aeruginosa ?hemO with a plasmid expressing either the wild type HemO or ?-regioselective HemO mutant restored extracellular heme uptake and degradation. In contrast deletion of the gene encoding the cytoplasmic heme-binding protein, PhuS, homologs of which have been proposed to be heme oxygenases, did not eliminate 13C-BV IX? and IX? production. In conclusion the metabolic flux of extracellular heme as a source of iron is driven by the catalytic action of HemO.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/SsQBjMRUF4s" height="1" width="1"/>
Allosteric binding pockets in peptide-binding G protein-coupled receptors create opportunities for the development of small molecule drugs with substantial benefits over orthosteric ligands. To gain insights into molecular determinants for this pocket within type 1 and 2 cholecystokinin receptors (CCK1R and CCK2R), we prepared a series of receptor constructs in which six distinct residues in TM2, -3, -6, and -7 were reversed. Two novel iodinated CCK1R- and CCK2R-selective 1,4-benzodiazepine antagonists, differing only in stereochemistry at C3, were used. When all six residues within CCK1R were mutated to corresponding CCK2R residues, benzodiazepine selectivity was reversed, yet peptide binding selectivity was unaffected. Detailed analysis, including observations of gain of function, demonstrated that residues 6.51, 6.52, and 7.39 were most important for binding the CCK1R-selective ligand, whereas residues 2.61 and 7.39 were most important for binding CCK2R-selective ligand, although the effect of substitution of residue 2.61 was likely indirect. Ligand-guided homology modeling was applied to wild type receptors and those reversing benzodiazepine binding selectivity. The models had high predictive power in enriching known receptor-selective ligands from related decoys, indicating a high degree of precision in pocket definition. The benzodiazepines docked in similar poses in both receptors, with C3 urea substituents pointing upward, whereas different stereochemistry at C3 directed the C5 phenyl rings and N1 methyl groups into opposite orientations. The geometry of the binding pockets and specific interactions predicted for ligand docking in these models provide a molecular framework for understanding ligand selectivity at these receptor subtypes. Furthermore, the strong predictive power of these models suggests their usefulness in the discovery of lead compounds and in drug development programs.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/XkIa9CaFCQ4" height="1" width="1"/>
Obese white adipose tissue is hypoxic but is incapable of inducing compensatory angiogenesis. Brown adipose tissue is highly vascularized, facilitating delivery of nutrients to brown adipocytes for heat production. In this study, we investigated the mechanisms by which white and brown adipocytes respond to hypoxia. Brown adipocytes produced lower amounts of hypoxia-inducible factor 1? (HIF-1?) than white adipocytes in response to low O2 but induced higher levels of hypoxia-associated genes. The response of white adipocytes to hypoxia required HIF-1?, but its presence alone was incapable of inducing target gene expression under normoxic conditions. In addition to the HIF-1? targets, hypoxia also induced many inflammatory genes. Exposure of white adipocytes to a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor ? (PPAR?) ligand (troglitazone) attenuated induction of these genes but enhanced expression of the HIF-1? targets. Knockdown of PPAR? in mature white adipocytes prevented the usual robust induction of HIF-1? targets in response to hypoxia. Similarly, knockdown of PPAR? coactivator (PGC) 1? in PGC-1?-deficient brown adipocytes eliminated their response to hypoxia. These data demonstrate that the response of white adipocytes requires HIF-1? but also depends on PPAR? in white cells and the PPAR? cofactors PGC-1? and PGC-1? in brown cells.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/1YKIIKsu_9Q" height="1" width="1"/>
DNA topoisomerases are essential enzymes that can overwind, underwind, and disentangle double-helical DNA segments to maintain the topological state of chromosomes. Nearly all bacteria utilize a unique type II topoisomerase, gyrase, which actively adds negative supercoils to chromosomes using an ATP-dependent DNA strand passage mechanism; however, the specific activities of these enzymes can vary markedly from species to species. Escherichia coli gyrase is known to favor supercoiling over decatenation (Zechiedrich, E. L., Khodursky, A. B., and Cozzarelli, N. R. (1997) Genes Dev. 11, 2580–2592), whereas the opposite has been reported for Mycobacterium tuberculosis gyrase (Aubry, A., Fisher, L. M., Jarlier, V., and Cambau, E. (2006) Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 348, 158–165). Here, we set out to understand the molecular basis for these differences using structural and biochemical approaches. Contrary to expectations based on phylogenetic inferences, we find that the dedicated DNA wrapping domains (the C-terminal domains) of both gyrases are highly similar, both architecturally and in their ability to introduce writhe into DNA. However, the M. tuberculosis enzyme lacks a C-terminal control element recently uncovered in E. coli gyrase (see accompanying article (Tretter, E. M., and Berger, J. M. (2012) J. Biol. Chem. 287, 18636–18644)) and turns over ATP at a much slower rate. Together, these findings demonstrate that C-terminal domain shape is not the sole regulatory determinant of gyrase activity and instead indicate that an inability to tightly couple DNA wrapping to ATP turnover is why M. tuberculosis gyrase cannot supercoil DNA to the same extent as its ?-proteobacterial counterpart. Our observations demonstrate that gyrase has been modified in multiple ways throughout evolution to fine-tune its specific catalytic properties.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/oi1Rs88QU-k" height="1" width="1"/>
Phagocytosis is a pivotal process by which macrophages eliminate microorganisms upon recognition by pathogen sensors. Surprisingly, the self-ligand cell surface receptor Slamf1 functions not only as a co-stimulatory molecule but also as a microbial sensor of several Gram-negative bacteria. Upon entering the phagosome of macrophages Slamf1 induces production of phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate, which positively regulates the activity of the NOX2 enzyme and phagolysosomal maturation. Here, we report that in Escherichia coli-containing phagosomes of mouse macrophages, Slamf1 interacts with the class III PI3K Vps34 in a complex with Beclin-1 and UVRAG. Upon phagocytosis of bacteria the NOX2 activity was reduced in macrophages isolated from Beclin-1+/? mice compared with wild-type mice. This Slamf1/Beclin-1/Vps34/UVRAG protein complex is formed in intracellular membrane compartments as it is found without inducing phagocytosis in macrophages, human chronic lymphocytic leukemia cells, and transfectant HEK293 cells. Elimination of its cytoplasmic tail abolished the interaction of Slamf1 with the complex, but deletion or mutation of the two ITAM motifs did not. Both the BD and CCD domains of Beclin-1 were required for efficient binding to Slamf1. Because Slamf1 did not interact with Atg14L or Rubicon, which can also form a complex with Vps34 and Beclin-1, we conclude that Slamf1 recruits a subset of Vps34-associated proteins, which is involved in membrane fusion and NOX2 regulation.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/74stVbMx_Xg" height="1" width="1"/>
Efficient DNA replication involves coordinated interactions among DNA polymerase, multiple factors, and the DNA. From bacteriophage T4 to eukaryotes, these factors include a helicase to unwind the DNA ahead of the replication fork, a single-stranded binding protein (SSB) to bind to the ssDNA on the lagging strand, and a helicase loader that associates with the fork, helicase, and SSB. The previously reported structure of the helicase loader in the T4 system, gene product (gp)59, has revealed an N-terminal domain, which shares structural homology with the high mobility group (HMG) proteins from eukaryotic organisms. Modeling of this structure with fork DNA has suggested that the HMG-like domain could bind to the duplex DNA ahead of the fork, whereas the C-terminal portion of gp59 would provide the docking sites for helicase (T4 gp41), SSB (T4 gp32), and the ssDNA fork arms. To test this model, we have used random and targeted mutagenesis to generate mutations throughout gp59. We have assayed the ability of the mutant proteins to bind to fork, primed fork, and ssDNAs, to interact with SSB, to stimulate helicase activity, and to function in leading and lagging strand DNA synthesis. Our results provide strong biochemical support for the role of the N-terminal gp59 HMG motif in fork binding and the interaction of the C-terminal portion of gp59 with helicase and SSB. Our results also suggest that processive replication may involve the switching of gp59 between its interactions with helicase and SSB.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/dPBCEKhbr84" height="1" width="1"/>
Genetic and molecular studies suggest that activin receptor-like kinase 1 (ALK1), a transforming growth factor ? (TGF-?) type I receptor, and endoglin, a TGF-? co-receptor, play an essential role in vascular development and pathological angiogenesis. Several agents that interfere with ALK1 and endoglin function are currently in clinical trials for antiangiogenic activity in cancer therapy. One of these agents, PF-03446962 (anti-hALK1 antibody), shows promising results in the clinic. However, its effects on endothelial cell function and mechanism of action are unclear. Here we demonstrate that anti-hALK1 antibody selectively recognizes human ALK1. The anti-hALK1 antibody interfered with bone morphogenetic protein 9 (BMP9)-induced signaling in endothelial cells. Consistent with this notion, anti-hALK1 antibody was found to compete highly efficiently with the binding of the ALK1 ligand BMP9 and TGF-? to ALK1. Moreover, it prevented BMP9-dependent recruitment of co-receptor endoglin into this angiogenesis-mediating signaling complex. In addition, we demonstrated that anti-hALK1 antibody inhibited endothelial cell sprouting but did not directly interfere with vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) signaling, VEGF-induced proliferation, and migration of endothelial cells. Finally, we demonstrated that BMP9 in serum is essential for endothelial sprouting and that anti-hALK1 antibody inhibits this potently. Our data suggest that both the VEGF/VEGF receptor and the BMP9/ALK1 pathways are essential for stimulating angiogenesis, and targeting both pathways simultaneously may be an attractive strategy to overcome resistance to antiangiogenesis therapy.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/Dvui97lv7K4" height="1" width="1"/>
The Saccharomyces cerevisiae long terminal repeat retrotransposon Ty3 integrates within one or two nucleotides of the transcription initiation sites of genes transcribed by RNA polymerase III. In this study the minimal components required to re-constitute position-specific strand transfer by Ty3 integrase are defined. Ty3 integrase targeted by a synthetic fusion of RNA polymerase III transcription factor IIIB subunits, Brf1 and TBP, mediated position-specific strand transfer of duplex oligonucleotides representing the ends of the Ty3 cDNA. These results further delimit the TFIIIB domains targeted by the Ty3 element and show that IN is the Ty3 component sufficient in vitro to target integration. These results underscore the commonality of protein interactions that mediate transcription and retrotransposon targeting. Surprisingly, in the presence of MnCl2, strand transfer was TFIIIB-independent and targeted sequences resembling the Ty3 terminal inverted repeat.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/OVlv2WacDUI" height="1" width="1"/>
Bacteriophage T4 gp59 helicase assembly protein (gp59) is required for loading of gp41 replicative helicase onto DNA protected by gp32 single-stranded DNA-binding protein. The gp59 protein recognizes branched DNA structures found at replication and recombination sites. Binding of gp32 protein (full-length and deletion constructs) to gp59 protein measured by isothermal titration calorimetry demonstrates that the gp32 protein C-terminal A-domain is essential for protein-protein interaction in the absence of DNA. Sedimentation velocity experiments with gp59 protein and gp32?B protein (an N-terminal B-domain deletion) show that these proteins are monomers but form a 1:1 complex with a dissociation constant comparable with that determined by isothermal titration calorimetry. Small angle x-ray scattering (SAXS) studies indicate that the gp59 protein is a prolate monomer, consistent with the crystal structure and hydrodynamic properties determined from sedimentation velocity experiments. SAXS experiments also demonstrate that gp32?B protein is a prolate monomer with an elongated A-domain protruding from the core. Fitting structures of gp59 protein and the gp32 core into the SAXS-derived molecular envelope supports a model for the gp59 protein-gp32?B protein complex. Our earlier work demonstrated that gp59 protein attracts full-length gp32 protein to pseudo-Y junctions. A model of the gp59 protein-DNA complex, modified to accommodate new SAXS data for the binary complex together with mutational analysis of gp59 protein, is presented in the accompanying article (Dolezal, D., Jones, C. E., Lai, X., Brister, J. R., Mueser, T. C., Nossal, N. G., and Hinton, D. M. (2012) J. Biol. Chem. 287, 18596–18607).<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/qdLmCy0V4Ds" height="1" width="1"/>
The mechanism by which voltage-gated sodium channels are trafficked to the surface of neurons is not well understood. Our previous work implicated the cytoplasmic N terminus of the sodium channel Nav1.6 in this process. We report that the N terminus plus the first transmembrane segment (residues 1–153) is sufficient to direct a reporter to the cell surface. To identify proteins that interact with the 117-residue N-terminal domain, we carried out a yeast two-hybrid screen of a mouse brain cDNA library. Three clones containing overlapping portions of the light chain of microtubule-associated protein Map1b (Mtap1b) were recovered from the screen. Interaction between endogenous Nav1.6 channels and Map1b in mouse brain was confirmed by co-immunoprecipitation. Map1b did not interact with the N terminus of the related channel Nav1.1. Alanine-scanning mutagenesis of the Nav1.6 N terminus demonstrated that residues 77–80 (VAVP) contribute to interaction with Map1b. Co-expression of Nav1.6 with Map1b in neuronal cell line ND7/23 resulted in a 50% increase in current density, demonstrating a functional role for this interaction. Mutation of the Map1b binding site of Nav1.6 prevented generation of sodium current in transfected cells. The data indicate that Map1b facilitates trafficking of Nav1.6 to the neuronal cell surface.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/Lo1OV7HDeBc" height="1" width="1"/>
The role of serine palmitoyltransferase (SPT) and de novo ceramide biosynthesis in cardiac ceramide and sphingomyelin metabolism is unclear. To determine whether the de novo synthetic pathways, rather than ceramide uptake from circulating lipoproteins, is important for heart ceramide levels, we created cardiomyocyte-specific deficiency of Sptlc2, a subunit of SPT. Heart-specific Sptlc2-deficient (hSptlc2 KO) mice had a >35% reduction in ceramide, which was limited to C18:0 and very long chain ceramides. Sphingomyelinase expression, and levels of sphingomyelin and diacylglycerol were unchanged. But surprisingly phospholipids and acyl CoAs contained increased saturated long chain fatty acids. hSptlc2 KO mice had decreased fractional shortening and thinning of the cardiac wall. While the genes regulating glucose and fatty acid metabolism were not changed, expression of cardiac failure markers and the genes involved in the formation of extracellular matrices were up-regulated in hSptlc2 KO hearts. In addition, ER-stress markers were up-regulated leading to increased apoptosis. These results suggest that Sptlc2-mediated de novo ceramide synthesis is an essential source of C18:0 and very long chain, but not of shorter chain, ceramides in the heart. Changes in heart lipids other than ceramide levels lead to cardiac toxicity.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/xzpZtKllSDc" height="1" width="1"/>
Adherens junctions (AJs) are essential for cell-cell contacts, morphogenesis, and the development of all higher eukaryotes. AJs are formed by calcium-dependent homotypic interactions of the ectodomains of single membrane-pass cadherin family receptors. These homotypic interactions in turn promote binding of the intracellular cytoplasmic tail domains of cadherin receptors with ?-catenin, a multifunctional protein that plays roles in both transcription and AJs. The cadherin receptor-?-catenin complex binds to the cytoskeletal protein ?-catenin, which is essential for both the formation and the stabilization of these junctions. Precisely how ?-catenin contributes to the formation and stabilization of AJs is hotly debated, although the latter is thought to involve its interactions with the cytoskeletal protein vinculin. Here we report the crystal structure of the vinculin binding domain (VBD) of ?-catenin in complex with the vinculin head domain (Vh1). This structure reveals that ?-catenin is in a unique unfurled mode allowing dimer formation when bound to vinculin. Finally, binding studies suggest that vinculin must be in an activated state to bind to ?-catenin and that this interaction is stabilized by the formation of a ternary ?-catenin-vinculin-F-actin complex, which can be formed via the F-actin binding domain of either protein. We propose a feed-forward model whereby ?-catenin-vinculin interactions promote their binding to the actin cytoskeleton to stabilize AJs.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/_KpamrkbCEw" height="1" width="1"/>
Maternal exposure to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) causes the impairment of reproduction and development in the pups. Our previous studies have revealed that maternal treatment with TCDD attenuates the fetal production of pituitary gonadotropins (luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone) at gestational day (GD) 20, leading to the impairment of sexual behavior in adulthood. However, the mechanism underlying such a reduction has remained unknown until now. When pregnant rats at GD15 were given an oral dose of TCDD (1 ?g/kg), the testicular expression of steroidogenic proteins was reduced between GD20 and postnatal days (PND) 2. In accordance with this, the pituitary expression of gonadotropin ?-subunit and serum gonadotropin were also attenuated from GD20 to PND0 in a pup-specific fashion. To identify the target genes linked to a fetal reduction in gonadotropin ?-subunit, we performed a DNA microarray analysis using the fetal pituitary and its regulatory organ, the hypothalamus. The results obtained showed that TCDD induced histone deacetylases (HDACs) in the fetal pituitary. In support with this, TCDD markedly deacetylated histones H3 and H4 twined around the promoter of the fetal LH? gene. This effect was fetus- and LH?-specific, and this was not observed in the maternal pituitary or for other pituitary hormone genes. Finally, an LH? reduction caused by TCDD was completely restored by maternal co-treatment with valproic acid, an HDAC inhibitor. These results strongly suggest that the increased deacetylation of histone owing to HDAC induction plays a critical role in the TCDD-induced reduction in LH? in the fetal pituitary.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/KqWKvhkQ9r4" height="1" width="1"/>
Subunit D of multisubunit RNA polymerase from many species of archaea is predicted to bind one to two iron-sulfur (Fe-S) clusters, the function of which is unknown. A survey of encoded subunit D in the genomes of sequenced archaea revealed six distinct groups based on the number of complete or partial [4Fe-4S] cluster motifs within domain 3. Only subunit D from strictly anaerobic archaea, including all members of the Methanosarcinales, are predicted to bind two [4Fe-4S] clusters. We report herein the purification and characterization of Methanosarcina acetivorans subunit D in complex with subunit L. Expression of subunit D and subunit L in Escherichia coli resulted in the purification of a D-L heterodimer with only partial [4Fe-4S] cluster content. Reconstitution in vitro with iron and sulfide revealed that the M. acetivorans D-L heterodimer is capable of binding two redox-active [4Fe-4S] clusters. M. acetivorans subunit D deleted of domain 3 (D?D3) was still capable of co-purifying with subunit L but was devoid of [4Fe-4S] clusters. Affinity purification of subunit D or subunit D?D3 from M. acetivorans resulted in the co-purification of endogenous subunit L with each tagged subunit D. Overall, these results suggest that domain 3 of subunit D is required for [4Fe-4S] cluster binding, but the [4Fe-4S] clusters and domain 3 are not required for the formation of the D-L heterodimer. However, exposure of two [4Fe-4S] cluster-containing D-L heterodimer to oxygen resulted in loss of the [4Fe-4S] clusters and subsequent protein aggregation, indicating that the [4Fe-4S] clusters influence the stability of the D-L heterodimer and therefore have the potential to regulate the assembly and/or activity of RNA polymerase in an oxidant-dependent manner.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/6zc5zVAWIOk" height="1" width="1"/>
The two age-prevalent diseases Alzheimer disease and type 2 diabetes mellitus share many common features including the deposition of amyloidogenic proteins, amyloid ? protein (A?) and amylin (islet amyloid polypeptide), respectively. Recent evidence suggests that both A? and amylin may express their effects through the amylin receptor, although the precise mechanisms for this interaction at a cellular level are unknown. Here, we studied this by generating HEK293 cells with stable expression of an isoform of the amylin receptor family, amylin receptor-3 (AMY3). A?1–42 and human amylin (hAmylin) increase cytosolic cAMP and Ca2+, trigger multiple pathways involving the signal transduction mediators protein kinase A, MAPK, Akt, and cFos. A?1–42 and hAmylin also induce cell death during exposure for 24–48 h at low micromolar concentrations. In the presence of hAmylin, A?1–42 effects on HEK293-AMY3-expressing cells are occluded, suggesting a shared mechanism of action between the two peptides. Amylin receptor antagonist AC253 blocks increases in intracellular Ca2+, activation of protein kinase A, MAPK, Akt, cFos, and cell death, which occur upon AMY3 activation with hAmylin, A?1–42, or their co-application. Our data suggest that AMY3 plays an important role by serving as a receptor target for actions A? and thus may represent a novel therapeutic target for development of compounds to treat neurodegenerative conditions such as Alzheimer disease.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/vi3LiOG8Y9I" height="1" width="1"/>
Degradation by proteasomes involves coupled translocation and unfolding of its protein substrates. Six distinct but paralogous proteasome ATPase proteins, Rpt1 to -6, form a heterohexameric ring that acts on substrates. An axially positioned loop (Ar-? loop) moves in concert with ATP hydrolysis, engages substrate, and propels it into a proteolytic chamber. The aromatic (Ar) residue of the Ar-? loop in all six Rpts of S. cerevisiae is tyrosine; this amino acid is thought to have important functional contacts with substrate. Six yeast strains were constructed and characterized in which Tyr was individually mutated to Ala. The mutant cells were viable and had distinct phenotypes. rpt3, rpt4, and rpt5 Tyr/Ala mutants, which cluster on one side of the ATPase hexamer, were substantially impaired in their capacity to degrade substrates. In contrast, rpt1, rpt2, and rpt6 mutants equaled or exceeded wild type in degradation activity. However, rpt1 and rpt6 mutants had defects that limited cell growth or viability under conditions that stressed the ubiquitin proteasome system. In contrast, the rpt3 mutant grew faster than wild type and to a smaller size, a defect that has previously been associated with misregulation of G1 cyclins. This rpt3 phenotype probably results from altered degradation of cell cycle regulatory proteins. Finally, mutation of five of the Rpt subunits increased proteasome ATPase activity, implying bidirectional coupling between the Ar-? loop and the ATP hydrolysis site. The present observations assign specific functions to individual Rpt proteins and provide insights into the diverse roles of the axial loops of individual proteasome ATPases.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/PXmaOy0-k1E" height="1" width="1"/>
VOLUME 283 (2008) PAGES 8930–8938
John Chen should be included as an author of this work. The correct author list is shown above. Dr. Chen's affiliation is the Molecular Pathogenesis Program and Departments of Microbiology and Medicine, the Kimmel Center for Biology and Medicine of the Skirball Institute, New York University School of Medicine, New York, New York 10016.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/keMObQwjh3E" height="1" width="1"/>
Conserved uncharacterized genes account for ?30% of genes in both eukaryotic and bacterial genomes and are predicted to encode what are often termed “conserved hypothetical proteins.” Many of these proteins have a wide phylogenetic distribution and might play important roles in conserved cellular pathways. Using the bacterium Serratia as a model system, we have investigated two conserved uncharacterized proteins, YgfY (a DUF339 protein, renamed SdhE; succinate dehydrogenase protein E) and YgfX (a DUF1434 protein). SdhE was required for growth on succinate as a sole carbon source and for the function, but not stability, of succinate dehydrogenase, an important component of the electron transport chain and the tricarboxylic acid cycle. SdhE interacted with the flavoprotein SdhA, directly bound the flavin adenine dinucleotide co-factor, and was required for the flavinylation of SdhA. This is the first demonstration of a protein required for FAD incorporation in bacteria. Furthermore, the loss of SdhE was highly pleiotropic, suggesting that SdhE might flavinylate other flavoproteins. Our findings are of wide importance to central metabolism because SdhE homologues are present in ?-, ?-, and ?-proteobacteria and multiple eukaryotes, including humans and yeast.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/VGLf7UNYLKs" height="1" width="1"/>
VOLUME 287 (2012) PAGES 7582–7593
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Ref. 33 should read: Movsesian, M. A., Mohsen, K., Green, K., and Jones, L. R. (1994) Ca2+ transporting ATPase, phospholamban, and calsequestrin levels in non-failing and failing human myocardium. Circulation 90, 653–657.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/e_6U5yKi3gQ" height="1" width="1"/>
VOLUME 287 (2012) PAGES 805–818
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In the right column, lines 3 and 4, Sidney Brenner's name was misspelled. The correct spelling is Sydney Brenner.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/LRuc06nTd-w" height="1" width="1"/>
Crystal structures of Gloeobacter violaceus ligand-gated ion channel (GLIC), a proton-gated prokaryotic homologue of pentameric ligand-gated ion channel (LGIC) from G. violaceus, have provided high-resolution models of the channel architecture and its role in selective ion conduction and drug binding. However, it is still unclear which functional states of the LGIC gating scheme these crystal structures represent. Much of this uncertainty arises from a lack of thorough understanding of the functional properties of these prokaryotic channels. To elucidate the molecular events that constitute gating, we have carried out an extensive characterization of GLIC function and dynamics in reconstituted proteoliposomes by patch clamp measurements and EPR spectroscopy. We find that GLIC channels show rapid activation upon jumps to acidic pH followed by a time-dependent loss of conductance because of desensitization. GLIC desensitization is strongly coupled to activation and is modulated by voltage, permeant ions, pore-blocking drugs, and membrane cholesterol. Many of these properties are parallel to functions observed in members of eukaryotic LGIC. Conformational changes in loop C, measured by site-directed spin labeling and EPR spectroscopy, reveal immobilization during desensitization analogous to changes in LGIC and acetylcholine binding protein. Together, our studies suggest conservation of mechanistic aspects of desensitization among LGICs of prokaryotic and eukaryotic origin.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/3g_xNOCnpoc" height="1" width="1"/>
?-Synuclein has a central role in Parkinson disease, but its physiological function and the mechanism leading to neuronal degeneration remain unknown. Because recent studies have highlighted a role for ?-synuclein in regulating mitochondrial morphology and autophagic clearance, we investigated the effect of ?-synuclein in HeLa cells on mitochondrial signaling properties focusing on Ca2+ homeostasis, which controls essential bioenergetic functions. By using organelle-targeted Ca2+-sensitive aequorin probes, we demonstrated that ?-synuclein positively affects Ca2+ transfer from the endoplasmic reticulum to the mitochondria, augmenting the mitochondrial Ca2+ transients elicited by agonists that induce endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ release. This effect is not dependent on the intrinsic Ca2+ uptake capacity of mitochondria, as measured in permeabilized cells, but correlates with an increase in the number of endoplasmic reticulum-mitochondria interactions. This action specifically requires the presence of the C-terminal ?-synuclein domain. Conversely, ?-synuclein siRNA silencing markedly reduces mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake, causing profound alterations in organelle morphology. The enhanced accumulation of ?-synuclein into the cells causes the redistribution of ?-synuclein to localized foci and, similarly to the silencing of ?-synuclein, reduces the ability of mitochondria to accumulate Ca2+. The absence of efficient Ca2+ transfer from endoplasmic reticulum to mitochondria results in augmented autophagy that, in the long range, could compromise cellular bioenergetics. Overall, these findings demonstrate a key role for ?-synuclein in the regulation of mitochondrial homeostasis in physiological conditions. Elevated ?-synuclein expression and/or eventually alteration of the aggregation properties cause the redistribution of the protein within the cell and the loss of modulation on mitochondrial function.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/kkxJoy9CqNk" height="1" width="1"/>
The reductive nitrosylation of ferric (met)hemoglobin is of considerable interest and remains incompletely explained. We have previously observed that at low NO concentrations the reaction with tetrameric hemoglobin occurs with an observed rate constant that is at least 5 times faster than that observed at higher concentrations. This was ascribed to a faster reaction of NO with a methemoglobin-nitrite complex. We now report detailed studies of this reaction of low NO with methemoglobin. Nitric oxide paradoxically reacts with ferric hemoglobin with faster observed rate constants at the lower NO concentration in a manner that is not affected by changes in nitrite concentration, suggesting that it is not a competition between NO and nitrite, as we previously hypothesized. By evaluation of the fast reaction in the presence of allosteric effectors and isolated ?- and ?-chains of hemoglobin, it appears that NO reacts with a subpopulation of ?-subunit ferric hemes whose population is influenced by quaternary state, redox potential, and hemoglobin dimerization. To further characterize the role of nitrite, we developed a system that oxidizes nitrite to nitrate to eliminate nitrite contamination. Removal of nitrite does not alter reaction kinetics, but modulates reaction products, with a decrease in the formation of S-nitrosothiols. These results are consistent with the formation of NO2/N2O3 in the presence of nitrite. The observed fast reductive nitrosylation observed at low NO concentrations may function to preserve NO bioactivity via primary oxidation of NO to form nitrite or in the presence of nitrite to form N2O3 and S-nitrosothiols.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/ylBAgqtRH_E" height="1" width="1"/>
KATP channels, (SUR1/Kir6.2)4 (sulfonylurea receptor type 1/potassium inward rectifier type 6.2) respond to the metabolic state of pancreatic ?-cells, modulating membrane potential and insulin exocytosis. Mutations in both subunits cause neonatal diabetes by overactivating the pore. Hyperactive channels fail to close appropriately with increased glucose metabolism; thus, ?-cell hyperpolarization limits insulin release. KATP channels are inhibited by ATP binding to the Kir6.2 pore and stimulated, via an uncertain mechanism, by magnesium nucleotides at SUR1. Glibenclamide (GBC), a sulfonylurea, was used as a conformational probe to compare nucleotide action on wild type versus Q1178R and R1182Q SUR1 mutants. GBC binds with high affinity to aporeceptors, presumably in the inward facing ATP-binding cassette configuration; MgATP reduces binding affinity via a shift to the outward facing conformation. To determine nucleotide affinities under equilibrium, non-hydrolytic conditions, Mg2+ was eliminated. A four-state equilibrium model describes the allosteric linkage. The KD for ATP4? is ?1 versus 12 mm, Q1178R versus wild type, respectively. The linkage constant is ?10, implying that outward facing conformations bind GBC with a lower affinity, 9–10 nm for Q1178R. Thus, nucleotides cannot completely inhibit GBC binding. Binding of channel openers is reported to require ATP hydrolysis, but diazoxide, a SUR1-selective agonist, concentration-dependently augments ATP4? action. An eight-state model describes linkage between diazoxide and ATP4? binding; diazoxide markedly increases the affinity of Q1178R for ATP4? and ATP4? augments diazoxide binding. NBD2, but not NBD1, has a higher affinity for ATP (and ADP) in mutant versus wild type (with or without Mg2+). Thus, the mutants spend more time in nucleotide-bound conformations, with reduced affinity for GBC, that activate the pore.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/s_eRD1WziGE" height="1" width="1"/>
Many human inherited disorders cause protein N-glycosylation defects, but there are few cellular markers to test gene complementation for such defects. Plasma membrane glycoproteins are potential biomarkers because they may be reduced or even absent in plasma membranes of glycosylation-deficient cells. We combined stable isotope labeling by amino acids in cell culture (SILAC) with linear ion trap mass spectrometry (LTQ OrbitrapTM) to identify and quantify membrane proteins from wild-type CHO and glycosylation-deficient CHO (Lec9) cells. We identified 165 underrepresented proteins from 1447 unique quantified proteins, including 18 N-glycosylated plasma membrane proteins. Using various methods, we found that intercellular cell adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1) was reduced in Lec9 cells and in fibroblasts from 31 congenital disorder of glycosylation (CDG) patients compared with normal controls. Mannose supplementation of phosphomannose isomerase-deficient CDG-Ib (MPI-CDG) cells and complementation with PMM2 in PMM2-deficient CDG-Ia (PMM2-CDG) cells partially corrected hypoglycosylation based on increased ICAM-1 presence on the plasma membrane. These data indicate that ICAM-1 could be a useful hypoglycosylation biomarker to assess gene complementation of CDG-I patient cells and to monitor improved glycosylation in response to therapeutic drugs.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/JSnuBB8wsHE" height="1" width="1"/>
In addition to its classical CD40 receptor, CD154 also binds to ?IIb?3, ?5?1, and ?M?2 integrins. Binding of CD154 to these receptors seems to play a key role in the pathogenic processes of chronic inflammation. This investigation was aimed at analyzing the functional interaction of CD154 with CD40, ?IIb?3, and ?5?1 receptors. We found that the binding affinity of CD154 for ?IIb?3 is ?4-fold higher than for ?5?1. We also describe the generation of sCD154 mutants that lost their ability to bind CD40 or ?IIb?3 and show that CD154 residues involved in its binding to CD40 or ?IIb?3 are distinct from those implicated in its interaction to ?5?1, suggesting that sCD154 may bind simultaneously to different receptors. Indeed, sCD154 can bind simultaneously to CD40 and ?5?1 and biologically activate human monocytic U937 cells expressing both receptors. The simultaneous engagement of CD40 and ?5?1 activates the mitogen-activated protein kinases, p38, and extracellular signal-related kinases 1/2 and synergizes in the release of inflammatory mediators MMP-2 and -9, suggesting a cross-talk between these receptors.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/FimctWsu5Qs" height="1" width="1"/>
HoxA10 is a member of a highly conserved family of homeodomain transcription factors that are involved in definitive hematopoiesis and implicated in the pathogenesis of acute myeloid leukemia (AML). During normal hematopoiesis, HoxA10 facilitates myeloid progenitor expansion and impedes myeloid differentiation. To better understand the molecular mechanisms that control these events, we have been identifying and characterizing HoxA10 target genes. In this study, we identified the gene encoding fibroblast growth factor 2 (Fgf2 or basic fibroblast growth factor) as a target gene that is relevant to the biological effects of HoxA10. We identified two cis elements in the proximal FGF2 promoter that are activated by HoxA10 in myeloid progenitor cells and differentiating phagocytes. We determined that Fgf2 expression and secretion are regulated in a HoxA10-dependent manner in these cells. We found that increased Fgf2 production by HoxA10-overexpressing myeloid progenitor cells induced a phosphoinositol 3-kinase-dependent increase in ?-catenin protein. This resulted in autocrine stimulation of proliferation in HoxA10-overexpressing cells and hypersensitivity to other cytokines that share this pathway. Therefore, these studies identified expression of Fgf2 as a mechanism by which HoxA10 controls the size of the myeloid progenitor population. These studies also suggested that aberrant production of Fgf2 may contribute to leukemogenesis in the subset of AML with dysregulated Hox expression. Therapeutic targeting of Fgf2-stimulated signaling pathways might be a rational approach to this poor prognosis subset of AML.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/OcqDyS8abn8" height="1" width="1"/>
Replacement of aspartate residue 541 by alanine (D541A) in the pore of TRPV6 channels in mice disrupts Ca2+ absorption by the epididymal epithelium, resulting in abnormally high Ca2+ concentrations in epididymal luminal fluid and in a dramatic but incomplete loss of sperm motility and fertilization capacity, raising the possibility of residual activity of channels formed by TRPV6D541A proteins (Weissgerber, P., Kriebs, U., Tsvilovskyy, V., Olausson, J., Kretz, O., Stoerger, C., Vennekens, R., Wissenbach, U., Middendorff, R., Flockerzi, V., and Freichel, M. (2011) Sci. Signal. 4, ra27). It is known from other cation channels that introducing pore mutations even if they largely affect their conductivity and permeability can evoke considerably different phenotypes compared with the deletion of the corresponding protein. Therefore, we generated TRPV6-deficient mice (Trpv6?/?) by deleting exons encoding transmembrane domains with the pore-forming region and the complete cytosolic C terminus harboring binding sites for TRPV6-associated proteins that regulate its activity and plasma membrane anchoring. Using this strategy, we aimed to determine whether the TRPV6D541A pore mutant still contributes to residual channel activity and/or channel-independent functions in vivo. Trpv6?/? males reveal severe defects in fertility and motility and viability of sperm and a significant increase in epididymal luminal Ca2+ concentration that is mirrored by a lack of Ca2+ uptake by the epididymal epithelium. Therewith, Trpv6 excision affects epididymal Ca2+ handling and male fertility to the same extent as the introduction of the D541A pore mutation, arguing against residual functions of the TRPV6D541A pore mutant in epididymal epithelial cells.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/9IuBTVkXXMU" height="1" width="1"/>
TRPM8 is a member of the transient receptor potential ion channel superfamily, which is expressed in sensory neurons and is activated by cold and cooling compounds, such as menthol. Activation of TRPM8 by agonists takes place through shifts in its voltage activation curve, allowing channel opening at physiological membrane potentials. Here, we studied the role of the N-glycosylation occurring at the pore loop of TRPM8 on the function of the channel. Using heterologous expression of recombinant channels in HEK293 cells we found that the unglycosylated TRPM8 mutant (N934Q) displays marked functional differences compared with the wild type channel. These differences include a shift in the threshold of temperature activation and a reduced response to menthol and cold stimuli. Biophysical analysis indicated that these modifications are due to a shift in the voltage dependence of TRPM8 activation toward more positive potentials. By using tunicamycin, a drug that prevents N-glycosylation of proteins, we also evaluated the effect of the N-glycosylation on the responses of trigeminal sensory neurons expressing TRPM8. These experiments showed that the lack of N-glycosylation affects the function of native TRPM8 ion channels in a similar way to heterologously expressed ones, causing an important shift of the temperature threshold of cold-sensitive thermoreceptor neurons. Altogether, these results indicate that post-translational modification of TRPM8 is an important mechanism modulating cold thermoreceptor function, explaining the marked differences in temperature sensitivity observed between recombinant and native TRPM8 ion channels.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/iqq9x6fx7DA" height="1" width="1"/>
Wnt/?-catenin and EGFR pathways are important in cancer development and often aberrantly activated in human cancer. However, it is very important to understand the mechanism responsible for this activation and the relation between them. Here, we report the mechanism of EGFR expression by transcriptionally active ?-catenin in GSK3?-inactivated prostate cancer cells that eventually leads to its enhanced proliferation and survival. Expressions of ?-catenin and EGFR are elevated in various cancers specifically in prostate cancer cells, DU145. When GSK3? is inactivated in these cells, ?-catenin gets stabilized, phosphorylated at Ser-552 by protein kinase A, accumulates in the nucleus, and regulates the expression of its target genes that include EGFR. Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) and promoter analysis revealed that the EGFR promoter gets occupied by transcriptionally active ?-catenin when elevated in GSK3?-inactivated cells. This phenomenon not only leads to increased expression of EGFR but also initiates the activation of its downstream molecules such as ERK1/2 and Stat3, ultimately resulting in up-regulation of multiple genes involved in cell proliferation and survival.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/nvfyNG9A7Us" height="1" width="1"/>
STAT3 was recently reported to suppress tumor invasion in Apcmin/+ mice. We investigated the mechanisms by which STAT3 inhibits intestinal epithelial tumors using Apcmin/+/Stat3IEC-KO mice (intestinal epithelial cell (IEC)-specific deletion of STAT3 in the Apcmin/+ background) to determine the role of STAT3 in carcinogenesis in vivo as well as colorectal cancer cell lines in vitro. To inhibit invasion of IEC tumors, STAT3 functions as a molecular adaptor rather than a transcription factor. Accordingly, the tumors in Apcmin/+/Stat3IEC-KO mice undergo adenoma-to-carcinoma transition and acquire an invasive phenotype. Similarly, STAT3 knockdown in a colorectal cell line enhances IEC invasion. We demonstrate that STAT3 down-regulates SNAI (Snail-1) expression levels and hence suppresses epithelial-mesenchymal transition of colorectal cancer cells. Mechanistically, STAT3 facilitates glycogen synthase kinase (GSK) 3?-mediated degradation of SNAI by regulating phosphorylation of GSK3?. Our data identified a new role for STAT3 in the adenoma-to-carcinoma sequence of intestinal tumors.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/X2sEUci4B78" height="1" width="1"/>
Previous studies indicated that hepatitis C virus (HCV) perturbs the autophagic pathway to induce the accumulation of autophagosomes in cells. To understand the role of autophagosomes in the HCV life cycle, we established a stable Huh7 hepatoma cell line that contained an HCV subgenomic RNA replicon and also expressed a GFP-LC3 fusion protein. The GFP-LC3 protein is localized to autophagosomes during autophagy and served as a convenient marker for autophagosomes. Our results indicate that the silencing of the expression of LC3 or Atg7, two protein factors critical for the formation of autophagosomes, suppresses the replication of HCV RNA. Confocal microscopy studies revealed the localization of HCV NS5A and NS5B proteins, which are two important components of the HCV RNA replication complex, and nascent HCV RNA to autophagosomes. The association of the HCV RNA replication complex with the autophagosomal membranes was further confirmed by co-immunoprecipitation and immunoelectron microscopy studies. Interestingly, inhibition of Class III PI3K activity had no effect on the autophagosomes induced by HCV. These results indicate that HCV induces autophagosomes via a Class III PI3K-independent pathway and uses autophagosomal membranes as sites for its RNA replication.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/Ku7khqOQ1dI" height="1" width="1"/>
In this study, one- and two-dimensional NMR experiments are applied to uniformly 15N-enriched synthetic elastin, a recombinant human tropoelastin that has been cross-linked to form an elastic hydrogel. Hydrated elastin is characterized by large segments that undergo “liquid-like” motions that limit the efficiency of cross-polarization. The refocused insensitive nuclei enhanced by polarization transfer experiment is used to target these extensive, mobile regions of this protein. Numerous peaks are detected in the backbone amide region of the protein, and their chemical shifts indicate the completely unstructured, “random coil” model for elastin is unlikely. Instead, more evidence is gathered that supports a characteristic ensemble of conformations in this rubber-like protein.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/Zlbd_Z8j0ms" height="1" width="1"/>
The melanocyte-specific transcription factor M-MITF is involved in numerous aspects of melanoblast lineage biology including pigmentation, survival, and migration. It plays complex roles at all stages of melanoma progression and metastasis. We established previously that GLI2, a Kruppel-like transcription factor that acts downstream of Hedgehog signaling, is a direct transcriptional target of the TGF-?/SMAD pathway and contributes to melanoma progression, exerting antagonistic activities against M-MITF to control melanoma cell invasiveness. Herein, we dissected the molecular mechanisms underlying both TGF-? and GLI2-driven M-MITF gene repression. Using transient cell transfection experiments with M-MITF promoter constructs, chromatin immunoprecipitation, site-directed mutagenesis, and electrophoretic mobility shift assays, we identified a GLI2 binding site within the ?334/-296 region of the M-MITF promoter, critical for GLI2-driven transcriptional repression. This region is, however, not needed for inhibition of M-MITF promoter activity by TGF-?. We determined that TGF-? rapidly repressed protein kinase A activity, thus reducing both phospho-cAMP-response element-binding protein (CREB) levels and CREB-dependent transcription of the M-MITF promoter. Increased GLI2 binding to its cognate cis-element, associated with reduced CREB-dependent transcription, allowed maximal inhibition of the M-MITF promoter via two distinct mechanisms.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/QCl37QAxrHY" height="1" width="1"/>
We study the amino acid transport system b0,+ as a model for folding, assembly, and early traffic of membrane protein complexes. System b0,+ is made of two disulfide-linked membrane subunits: the carrier, b0,+ amino acid transporter (b0,+AT), a polytopic protein, and the helper, related to b0,+ amino acid transporter (rBAT), a type II glycoprotein. rBAT ectodomain mutants display folding/trafficking defects that lead to type I cystinuria. Here we show that, in the presence of b0,+AT, three disulfides were formed in the rBAT ectodomain. Disulfides Cys-242-Cys-273 and Cys-571-Cys-666 were essential for biogenesis. Cys-673-Cys-685 was dispensable, but the single mutants C673S, and C685S showed compromised stability and trafficking. Cys-242-Cys-273 likely was the first disulfide to form, and unpaired Cys-242 or Cys-273 disrupted oxidative folding. Strikingly, unassembled rBAT was found as an ensemble of different redox species, mainly monomeric. The ensemble did not change upon inhibition of rBAT degradation. Overall, these results indicated a b0,+AT-dependent oxidative folding of the rBAT ectodomain, with the initial and probably cotranslational formation of Cys-242-Cys-273, followed by the oxidation of Cys-571-Cys-666 and Cys-673-Cys-685, that was completed posttranslationally.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/QGS4Fa0YCgc" height="1" width="1"/>
When mice are subjected to 7-day calorie restriction (40% of normal food intake), body fat disappears, but blood glucose is maintained as long as the animals produce ghrelin, an octanoylated peptide that stimulates growth hormone secretion. Mice can be rendered ghrelin-deficient by knock-out of the gene encoding either ghrelin O-acyltransferase, which attaches the required octanoate, or ghrelin itself. Calorie-restricted, fat-depleted ghrelin O-acyltransferase or ghrelin knock-out mice fail to show the normal increase in growth hormone and become profoundly hypoglycemic when fasted for 18–23 h. Glucose production in Goat?/? mice was reduced by 60% when compared with similarly treated WT mice. Plasma lactate and pyruvate were also low. Injection of lactate, pyruvate, alanine, or a fatty acid restored blood glucose in Goat?/? mice. Thus, when body fat is reduced by calorie restriction, ghrelin stimulates growth hormone secretion, which allows maintenance of glucose production, even when food intake is eliminated. In humans with anorexia nervosa or kwashiorkor, ghrelin and growth hormone are known to be elevated, just as they are in fat-depleted mice. We suggest that these two hormones prolong survival in starved humans as they do in mice.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/y3AXdpMz3so" height="1" width="1"/>
Mutations in the dystrophin gene without disruption of the reading frame often lead to Becker muscular dystrophy, but a genotype/phenotype correlation is difficult to establish. Amino acid substitutions may disrupt binding capacities of dystrophin and have a major impact on the functionality of this protein. We have identified two brothers (ages 8 and 10 years) with very mild proximal weakness, recurrent abdominal pain, and moderately elevated serum creatine kinase levels. Gene sequencing revealed a novel mutation in exon 11 of the dystrophin gene (c.1280T>C) leading to a L427P amino acid substitution in repeat 1 of the central rod domain. Immunostaining of skeletal muscle showed weak staining of the dystrophin region encoded by exons 7 and 8 corresponding to the end of the actin-binding domain 1 and the N-terminal part of hinge 1. Spectrofluorescence and circular dichroism analysis of the domain repeat 1-2 (R1-2) revealed partial misfolding of the L427P mutated protein as well as a reduced refolding rate after denaturation. Based on computational homology models of the wild-type and mutated R1-2, a molecular dynamics study showed an alteration in the flexibility of the structure, which also strongly affects the conformational space available in the N-terminal region of the fragment. Our results suggest that this missense mutation hinders the dynamic properties of the entire N-terminal region of dystrophin.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/KYaxVxskLIU" height="1" width="1"/>
PU.1 is an essential transcription factor in normal hematopoietic lineage development. It recognizes a large number of promoter sites differing only in bases flanking a core consensus of 5?-GGAA-3?. DNA binding is mediated by its ETS domain, whose sequence selectivity directly corresponds to the transactivational activity and frequency of binding sites for full-length PU.1 in vivo. To better understand the basis of sequence discrimination, we characterized its binding properties to a high affinity and low affinity site. Despite sharing a homologous structural framework as confirmed by DNase I and hydroxyl radical footprinting, the two complexes exhibit striking heterogeneity in terms of hydration properties. High affinity binding is destabilized by osmotic stress, whereas low affinity binding is insensitive. Dimethyl sulfate footprinting showed that the major groove at the core consensus is protected in the high affinity complex but accessible in the low affinity one. Finally, destabilization of low affinity binding by salt is in quantitative agreement with the number of phosphate contacts but is substantially attenuated in high affinity binding. These observations support a mechanism of sequence discrimination wherein specifically bound water molecules couple flanking backbone contacts with base-specific interactions in a sequestered cavity at the core consensus. The implications of this model with respect to other ETS paralogs are discussed.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/64_T9zWZptQ" height="1" width="1"/>
Calmodulin (CaM) was shown to be essential for survival of lower eukaryotes by gene deletion experiments. So far, no CaM gene deletion was reported in higher eukaryotes. In vertebrates, CaM is expressed from several genes, which encode an identical protein, making it difficult to generate a model system to study the effect of CaM gene deletion. Here, we present a novel genetic system based on the chicken DT40 cell line, in which the two functional CaM genes were deleted and one allele replaced with a CaM transgene that can be artificially regulated. We show that CaM is essential for survival of vertebrate cells as they die in the absence of CaM expression. Reversal of CaM repression or ectopic expression of HA-tagged CaM rescued the cells. Cells exclusively expressing HA-CaM with impaired individual calcium binding domains as well as HA-CaM lacking the ability to be phosphorylated at residues Tyr99/Tyr138 or trimethylated at Lys115 survived and grew well. CaM mutated at both Ca2+ binding sites 3 and 4 as well as at both sites 1 and 2, but to a lesser degree, showed decreased ability to support cell growth. Cells expressing CaM with all calcium binding sites impaired died with kinetics similar to that of cells expressing no CaM. This system offers a unique opportunity to analyze CaM structure-function relationships in vivo without the use of pharmacological inhibitors and to analyze the function of wild type and mutated CaM in modulating the activity of different target systems without interference of endogenous CaM.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/ZxdJbd0e2Xs" height="1" width="1"/>
The terminal modification of glycans by ?4 addition of N-acetylgalactosamine to N-acetylglucosamine with formation of the N,N-diacetyllactosediamine (LacdiNAc) moiety has been well documented for a number of N-linked glycoproteins and peptides, like neurohormones. Much less is known about O-glycoproteins in this regard because only human zona pellucida glycoprotein 3 (ZP3) and bovine proopiomelanocortin were reported to be LacdiNAc-modified. In searching for mammalian proteins modified with O-linked LacdiNAc we identified six positive species among nine endogenous and recombinant O-glycoproteins, which were extracellular matrix, or matrix-related proteins. These are ZP3 and the five novel LacdiNAc-positive species ECM1, AMACO, nidogen-1, ?-dystroglycan, and neurofascin. The mass spectrometric analyses revealed a core 2-based tetrasaccharide as the common structural basis of O-linked LacdiNAc that could be further modified, similar to the type 2 LacNAc termini, with fucose, sialic acid, or sulfate. Here, we provide structural evidence for a novel type of mucin-type O-glycans that is strictly specific for LacdiNAc termini: sugar phosphorylation with formation of GalNAc?1–4(phospho-)GlcNAc. The structural details of the phosphatase-labile compound were elucidated by MS2 analysis of tetralysine complexes and by MSn measurements of the permethylated glycan alditols. Phospho-LacdiNAc was detected in human HEK-293 as well as in mouse myoblast cells and in bovine brain tissue.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/a7X_2ulGcyY" height="1" width="1"/>
Glutaminase C (GAC), a splicing variant of the kidney-type glutaminase (KGA) gene, is a vital mitochondrial enzyme protein that catalyzes glutamine to glutamate. Earlier studies have shown that GAC proteins in the human hepatocarcinoma cell line, HepG2, were down-regulated by diphenylarsinic acid (DPAA), but the mechanism by which DPAA induced GAC protein down-regulation remained poorly understood. Here, we showed that DPAA promoted GAC protein degradation without affecting GAC transcription and translation. Moreover, DPAA-induced GAC proteolysis was mediated by mitochondrial Lon protease. DPAA insolubilized 0.5% Triton X-100-soluble GAC protein and promoted the accumulation of insoluble GAC in Lon protease knockdown cells. DPAA destroyed the native tetrameric GAC conformation and promoted an increase in the unassembled form of GAC when DPAA was incubated with cell extracts. Decreases in the tetrameric form of GAC were observed in cells exposed to DPAA, and decreases occurred prior to a decrease in total GAC protein levels. In addition, decreases in the tetrameric form of GAC were observed independently with Lon protease. Mitochondrial heat shock protein 70 is known to be an indispensable protein that can bind to misfolded proteins, thereby supporting degradation of proteins sensitive to Lon protease. When cells were incubated with DPAA, GAC proteins that can bind with mtHsp70 increased. Interestingly, the association of mtHsp70 with GAC protein increased when the tetrameric form of GAC was reduced. These results suggest that degradation of native tetrameric GAC by DPAA may be a trigger in GAC protein degradation by Lon protease.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/VUCzXLzHOW8" height="1" width="1"/>
Cyclic nucleotide-gated (CNG) channels play a pivotal role in phototransduction. Mutations in the cone CNG channel subunits CNGA3 and CNGB3 account for >70% of all known cases of achromatopsia. Cones degenerate in achromatopsia patients and in CNGA3?/? and CNGB3?/? mice. This work investigates the molecular basis of cone degeneration in CNG channel deficiency. As cones comprise only 2–3% of the total photoreceptor population in the wild-type mouse retina, we generated mouse lines with CNG channel deficiency on a cone-dominant background, i.e. CNGA3?/?/Nrl?/? and CNGB3?/?/Nrl?/? mice. The retinal phenotype and potential cell death pathways were examined by functional, biochemical, and immunohistochemical approaches. CNGA3?/?/Nrl?/? and CNGB3?/?/Nrl?/? mice showed impaired cone function, opsin mislocalization, and cone degeneration similar to that in the single knock-out mice. The endoplasmic reticulum stress marker proteins, including Grp78/Bip, phospho-eIF2?, phospho-IP3R, and CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein homologous protein, were elevated significantly in CNGA3?/?/Nrl?/? and CNGB3?/?/Nrl?/? retinas, compared with the age-matched (postnatal 30 days) Nrl?/? controls. Along with these, up-regulation of the cysteine protease calpains and cleavage of caspase-12 and caspase-7 were found in the channel-deficient retinas, suggesting an endoplasmic reticulum stress-associated apoptosis. In addition, we observed a nuclear translocation of apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF) and endonuclease G in CNGA3?/?/Nrl?/? and CNGB3?/?/Nrl?/? retinas, implying a mitochondrial insult in the endoplasmic reticulum stress-activated cell death process. Taken together, our findings suggest a crucial role of endoplasmic reticulum stress in cone degeneration associated with CNG channel deficiency.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/80fale6LpRk" height="1" width="1"/>
The activities of a number of proteins are regulated by the binding of cAMP and cGMP to cyclic nucleotide binding (CNB) domains that are found associated with one or more effector domains with diverse functions. Although the conserved architecture of CNB domains has been extensively studied by x-ray crystallography, the key to unraveling the mechanisms of cAMP action has been protein dynamics analyses. Recently, we have identified a novel cAMP-binding protein from mycobacteria, where cAMP regulates the activity of an associated protein acetyltransferase domain. In the current study, we have monitored the conformational changes that occur upon cAMP binding to the CNB domain in these proteins, using a combination of bioluminescence resonance energy transfer and amide hydrogen/deuterium exchange mass spectrometry. Coupled with mutational analyses, our studies reveal the critical role of the linker region (positioned between the CNB domain and the acetyltransferase domain) in allosteric coupling of cAMP binding to activation of acetyltransferase catalysis. Importantly, major differences in conformational change upon cAMP binding were accompanied by stabilization of the CNB and linker domain alone. This is in contrast to other cAMP-binding proteins, where cyclic nucleotide binding has been shown to involve intricate and parallel allosteric relays. Finally, this powerful convergence of results from bioluminescence resonance energy transfer and hydrogen/deuterium exchange mass spectrometry reaffirms the power of solution biophysical tools in unraveling mechanistic bases of regulation of proteins in the absence of high resolution structural information.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/ZTKsVvfJKio" height="1" width="1"/>
The cyanobacterial circadian oscillator can be reconstituted in vitro; mixing three clock proteins (KaiA, KaiB, and KaiC) with ATP results in an oscillation of KaiC phosphorylation with a periodicity of ?24 h. The hexameric ATPase KaiC hydrolyzes ATP bound at subunit interfaces. KaiC also exhibits autokinase and autophosphatase activities, the latter of which is particularly noteworthy because KaiC is phylogenetically distinct from typical protein phosphatases. To examine this activity, we performed autodephosphorylation assays using 32P-labeled KaiC. The residual radioactive ATP bound to subunit interfaces was removed using a newly established method, which included the dissociation of KaiC hexamers into monomers and the reconstitution of KaiC hexamers with nonradioactive ATP. This approach ensured that only the signals derived from 32P-labeled KaiC were examined. We detected the transient formation of [32P]ATP preceding the accumulation of 32Pi. Together with kinetic analyses, our data demonstrate that KaiC undergoes dephosphorylation via a mechanism that differs from those of conventional protein phosphatases. A phosphate group at a phosphorylation site is first transferred to KaiC-bound ADP to form ATP as an intermediate, which can be regarded as a reversal of the autophosphorylation reaction. Subsequently, the ATP molecule is hydrolyzed to form Pi. We propose that the ATPase active site mediates not only ATP hydrolysis but also the bidirectional transfer of the phosphate between phosphorylation sites and the KaiC-bound nucleotide. On the basis of these findings, we can now dissect the dynamics of the KaiC phosphorylation cycle relative to ATPase activity.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/lsWuCIbI4Sc" height="1" width="1"/>
The mechanisms that govern whether a cell dies by apoptosis or necrosis are not fully understood. Here we show that serglycin, a secretory granule proteoglycan of hematopoietic cells, can have a major impact on this decision. Wild type and serglycin?/? mast cells were equally sensitive to a range of cell death-inducing regimens. However, whereas wild type mast cells underwent apoptotic cell death, serglycin?/? cells died predominantly by necrosis. Investigations of the underlying mechanism revealed that cell death was accompanied by leakage of secretory granule compounds into the cytosol and that the necrotic phenotype of serglycin?/? mast cells was linked to defective degradation of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1. Cells lacking mouse mast cell protease 6, a major serglycin-associated protease, exhibited similar defects in apoptosis as observed in serglycin?/? cells, indicating that the pro-apoptotic function of serglycin is due to downstream effects of proteases that are complex-bound to serglycin. Together, these findings implicate serglycin in promoting apoptotic versus necrotic cell death.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/7Z_ihXV7_6c" height="1" width="1"/>
Heparan sulfate proteoglycans are critical binding partners for extracellular tranglutaminase-2 (TG2), a multifunctional protein involved in tissue remodeling events related to organ fibrosis and cancer progression. We previously showed that TG2 has a strong affinity for heparan sulfate (HS)/heparin and reported that the heparan sulfate proteoglycan syndecan-4 acts as a receptor for TG2 via its HS chains in two ways: by increasing TG2-cell surface trafficking/externalization and by mediating RGD-independent cell adhesion to fibronectin-TG2 matrix during wound healing. Here we have investigated the molecular basis of this interaction. Site-directed mutagenesis revealed that either mutation of basic RRWK (262–265) or KQKRK (598–602) clusters, forming accessible heparin binding sequences on the TG2 three-dimensional structure, led to an almost complete reduction of heparin binding, indicating that both clusters contribute to form a single binding surface. Mutation of residues Arg19 and Arg28 also led to a significant reduction in heparin binding, suggesting their involvement. Our findings indicate that the heparin binding sites on TG2 mainly comprise two clusters of basic amino acids, which are distant in the linear sequence but brought into spatial proximity in the folded “closed” protein, forming a high affinity heparin binding site. Molecular modeling showed that the identified site can make contact with a single heparin-derived pentasaccharide. The TG2-heparin binding mutants supported only weak RGD-independent cell adhesion compared with wild type TG2 or mutants with retained heparin binding, and both heparin binding clusters were critical for TG2-mediated cell adhesion. These findings significantly advance our knowledge of how HS/heparin influences the adhesive function of TG2.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/WbttVCs9NE8" height="1" width="1"/>
Human Tudor staphylococcal nuclease (Tudor-SN) is composed of four tandem repeats of staphylococcal nuclease (SN)-like domains, followed by a tudor and SN-like domain (TSN) consisting of a central tudor flanked by two partial SN-like sequences. The crystal structure of the tudor domain displays a conserved aromatic cage, which is predicted to hook methyl groups. Here, we demonstrated that the TSN domain of Tudor-SN binds to symmetrically dimethylarginine (sDMA)-modified SmB/B? and SmD1/D3 core proteins of the spliceosome. We demonstrated that this interaction ability is reduced by the methyltransferase inhibitor 5-deoxy-5-(methylthio)adenosine. Mutagenesis experiments indicated that the conserved amino acids (Phe-715, Tyr-721, Tyr-738, and Tyr-741) in the methyl-binding cage of the TSN domain are required for Tudor-SN-SmB interaction. Furthermore, depletion of Tudor-SN affects the association of Sm protein with snRNAs and, as a result, inhibits the assembly of uridine-rich small ribonucleoprotein mediated by the Sm core complex in vivo. Our results reveal the molecular basis for the involvement of Tudor-SN in regulating small nuclear ribonucleoprotein biogenesis, which provides novel insight related to the biological activity of Tudor-SN.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/9XMJ2whGsHI" height="1" width="1"/>
Signaling by the Hedgehog (Hh) family of secreted proteins is essential for proper embryonic patterning and development. Dysregulation of Hh signaling is associated with a variety of human diseases ranging from developmental disorders such as holoprosencephaly to certain forms of cancer, including medulloblastoma and basal cell carcinoma. Genetic studies in flies and mice have shaped our understanding of Hh signaling and revealed that nearly all core components of the pathway are highly conserved. Although many aspects of the Drosophila Hh pathway are conserved in vertebrates, mechanistic differences between the two species have begun to emerge. Perhaps the most striking divergence in vertebrate Hh signaling is its dependence on the primary cilium, a vestigial organelle that is largely absent in flies. This minireview will provide an overview of Hh signaling and present recent insights into vertebrate Hh secretion, receptor binding, and signal transduction.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/v5r10p1dd2k" height="1" width="1"/>
A self-consistent model of ?-mannan oligosaccharides bound to a monoclonal antibody, C3.1, that protects mice against Candida albicans has been developed through chemical mapping, NMR spectroscopic, and computational studies. This antibody optimally binds di- and trisaccharide epitopes, whereas larger oligomers bind with affinities that markedly decrease with increasing chain length. The (1?2)-?-linked di-, tri-, and tetramannosides bind in helical conformations similar to the solution global minimum. Antibody recognition of the di- and trisaccharide is primarily dependent on the mannose unit at the reducing end, with the hydrophobic face of this sugar being tightly bound. Recognition of a tetrasaccharide involves a frameshift in the ligand interaction, shown by strong binding of the sugar adjacent to the reducing end. We show that frameshifting may also be deliberately induced by chemical modifications. Molecular recognition patterns similar to that of mAb C3.1, determined by saturation transfer difference-NMR, were also observed in polyclonal sera from rabbits immunized with a trisaccharide glycoconjugate. The latter observation points to the importance of internal residues as immunodominant epitopes in (1?2)-?-mannans and to the viability of a glycoconjugate vaccine composed of a minimal length oligosaccharide hapten.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/i-dkNHlk5tQ" height="1" width="1"/>
Osteoclasts are essential for bone dynamics and calcium homeostasis. Recently, we reported that serum calcium-decreasing factor, caldecrin, which is a secretory-type serine protease isolated from the pancreas, inhibits osteoclast differentiation by suppression of NFATc1 activity regardless of its own protease activity (Hasegawa, H., Kido, S., Tomomura, M., Fujimoto, K., Ohi, M., Kiyomura, M., Kanegae, H., Inaba, A., Sakagami, H., and Tomomura, A. (2010) Serum calcium-decreasing factor, caldecrin, inhibits osteoclast differentiation by suppression of NFATc1 activity. J. Biol. Chem. 285, 25448–25457). Here, we investigated the effects of caldecrin on the function of mature osteoclasts by treatment with receptor activator of NF-?B ligand (RANKL). Caldecrin inhibited the RANKL-stimulated bone resorptive activity of mature osteoclasts. Furthermore, caldecrin inhibited RANKL-mediated sealing actin ring formation, which is associated with RANKL-evoked Ca2+ entry through transient receptor potential vanilloid channel 4. The inhibitors of phospholipase C?, Syk, and c-Src suppressed RANKL-evoked Ca2+ entry and actin ring formation of mature osteoclasts. Interestingly, caldecrin significantly inhibited RANKL-stimulated phosphorylation of c-Src, Syk, phospholipase C?1 and C?2, SLP-76, and Pyk2 but not that of ERK, JNK, or Akt. Caldecrin inhibited RANKL-stimulated c-Src kinase activity and c-Src·Syk association. These results suggest that caldecrin inhibits RANKL-stimulated calcium signaling activation and cytoskeletal organization by suppression of the c-Src·Syk pathway, which may in turn reduce the bone resorptive activity of mature osteoclasts. Thus, caldecrin is capable of acting as a negative regulator of osteoclastogenesis and osteoclast function of bone resorption.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/W9QXHXfAHec" height="1" width="1"/>
Dendritic spines of medium spiny neurons represent an essential site of information processing between NMDA and dopamine receptors in striatum. Even if activation of NMDA receptors in the striatum has important implications for synaptic plasticity and disease states, the contribution of specific NMDA receptor subunits still remains to be elucidated. Here, we show that treatment of corticostriatal slices with NR2A antagonist NVP-AAM077 or with NR2A blocking peptide induces a significant increase of spine head width. Sustained treatment with D1 receptor agonist (SKF38393) leads to a significant decrease of NR2A-containing NMDA receptors and to a concomitant increase of spine head width. Interestingly, co-treatment of corticostriatal slices with NR2A antagonist (NVP-AAM077) and D1 receptor agonist augmented the increase of dendritic spine head width as obtained with SKF38393. Conversely, NR2B antagonist (ifenprodil) blocked any morphological effect induced by D1 activation. These results indicate that alteration of NMDA receptor composition at the corticostriatal synapse contributes not only to the clinical features of disease states such as experimental parkinsonism but leads also to a functional and morphological outcome in dendritic spines of medium spiny neurons.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/3QO5xY5v1Kg" height="1" width="1"/>
Shwanavidin is an avidin-like protein from the marine proteobactrium Shewanella denitrificans, which exhibits an innate dimeric structure while maintaining high affinity toward biotin. A unique residue (Phe-43) from the L3,4 loop and a distinctive disulfide bridge were shown to account for the high affinity toward biotin. Phe-43 emulates the function and position of the critical intermonomeric Trp that characterizes the tetrameric avidins but is lacking in shwanavidin. The 18 copies of the apo-monomer revealed distinctive snapshots of L3,4 and Phe-43, providing rare insight into loop flexibility, binding site accessibility, and psychrophilic adaptation. Nevertheless, as in all avidins, shwanavidin also displays high thermostability properties. The unique features of shwanavidin may provide a platform for the design of a long sought after monovalent form of avidin, which would be ideal for novel types of biotechnological application.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/fuuxiu6nJBo" height="1" width="1"/>
Stretch-induced differentiation of lung fetal type II epithelial cells is mediated through EGFR (ErbB1) via release of HB-EGF and TGF-? ligands. Employing an EGFR knock-out mice model, we further investigated the role of the ErbB family of receptors in mechanotranduction during lung development. Deletion of EGFR prevented endogenous and mechanical stretch-induced type II cell differentiation via the ERK pathway, which was rescued by overexpression of a constitutively active MEK. Interestingly, the expression of ErbB4, the only ErbB receptor that EGFR co-precipitates in wild-type cells, was decreased in EGFR-deficient type II cells. Similar to EGFR, ErbB4 was activated by stretch and participated in ERK phosphorylation and type II cell differentiation. However, neuregulin (NRG) or stretch-induced ErbB4 activation were blunted in EGFR-deficient cells and not rescued after ErbB4 overexpression, suggesting that induction of ErbB4 phosphorylation is EGFR-dependent. Finally, we addressed how shedding of ligands is regulated by EGFR. In knock-out cells, TGF-?, a ligand for EGFR, was not released by stretch, while HB-EGF, a ligand for EGFR and ErbB4, was shed by stretch although to a lower magnitude than in normal cells. Release of these ligands was inhibited by blocking EGFR and ERK pathway. In conclusion, our studies show that EGFR and ErbB4 regulate stretch-induced type II cell differentiation via ERK pathway. Interactions between these two receptors are important for mechanical signals in lung fetal type II cells. These studies provide novel insights into the cell signaling mechanisms regulating ErbB family receptors in lung cell differentiation.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/mcrc3x4do-c" height="1" width="1"/>
The Escherichia coli NhaA antiporter couples the transport of H+ and Na+ (or Li+) ions to maintain the proper pH range and Na+ concentration in cells. A crystal structure of NhaA, solved at pH 4, comprises 12 transmembrane helices (TMs), arranged in two domains, with a large cytoplasm-facing funnel and a smaller periplasm-facing funnel. NhaA undergoes conformational changes, e.g. after pH elevation to alkaline ranges, and we used two computational approaches to explore them. On the basis of pseudo-symmetric features of the crystal structure, we predicted the structural architecture of an alternate, periplasm-facing state. In contrast to the crystal structure, the model presents a closed cytoplasmic funnel, and a periplasmic funnel of greater volume. To examine the transporter functional direction of motion, we conducted elastic network analysis of the crystal structure and detected two main normal modes of motion. Notably, both analyses predicted similar trends of conformational changes, consisting of an overall rotational motion of the two domains around a putative symmetry axis at the funnel centers, perpendicular to the membrane plane. This motion, along with conformational changes within specific helices, resulted in closure at the cytoplasmic end and opening at the periplasmic end. Cross-linking experiments, performed between segments on opposite sides of the cytoplasmic funnel, revealed pH-dependent interactions consistent with the proposed conformational changes. We suggest that the model-structure and predicted motion represent alkaline pH-induced conformational changes, mediated by a cluster of evolutionarily conserved, titratable residues, at the cytoplasmic ends of TMs II, V, and IX.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/uXl1ppzPQgg" height="1" width="1"/>
MutM, a bacterial DNA-glycosylase, plays a critical role in maintaining genome integrity by catalyzing glycosidic bond cleavage of 8-oxoguanine (oxoG) lesions to initiate base excision DNA repair. The task faced by MutM of locating rare oxoG residues embedded in an overwhelming excess of undamaged bases is especially challenging given the close structural similarity between oxoG and its normal progenitor, guanine (G). MutM actively interrogates the DNA to detect the presence of an intrahelical, fully base-paired oxoG, whereupon the enzyme promotes extrusion of the target nucleobase from the DNA duplex and insertion into the extrahelical active site. Recent structural studies have begun to provide the first glimpse into the protein-DNA interactions that enable MutM to distinguish an intrahelical oxoG from G; however, these initial studies left open the important question of how MutM can recognize oxoG residues embedded in 16 different neighboring sequence contexts (considering only the 5?- and 3?-neighboring base pairs). In this study we set out to understand the manner and extent to which intrahelical lesion recognition varies as a function of the 5?-neighbor. Here we report a comprehensive, systematic structural analysis of the effect of the 5?-neighboring base pair on recognition of an intrahelical oxoG lesion. These structures reveal that MutM imposes the same extrusion-prone (“extrudogenic”) backbone conformation on the oxoG lesion irrespective of its 5?-neighbor while leaving the rest of the DNA relatively free to adjust to the particular demands of individual sequences.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/j4V_SJaM5Ac" height="1" width="1"/>
The PATZ1 gene encoding a POZ/AT-hook/Kruppel zinc finger (PATZ) transcription factor, is considered a cancer-related gene because of its loss or misexpression in human neoplasias. As for other POZ/domain and Kruppel zinc finger (POK) family members, the transcriptional activity of PATZ is due to the POZ-mediated oligomer formation, suggesting that it might be not a typical transactivator but an architectural transcription factor, thus functioning either as activator or as repressor depending on the presence of proteins able to interact with it. Therefore, to better elucidate PATZ function, we searched for its molecular partners. By yeast two-hybrid screenings, we found a specific interaction between PATZ and BCL6, a human oncogene that plays a key role in germinal center (GC) derived neoplasias. We demonstrate that PATZ and BCL6 interact in germinal center-derived B lymphoma cells, through the POZ domain of PATZ. Moreover, we show that PATZ is able to bind the BCL6 regulatory region, where BCL6 itself acts as a negative regulator, and to contribute to negatively modulate its activity. Consistently, disruption of one or both Patz1 alleles in mice causes focal expansion of thymus B cells, in which BCL6 is up-regulated. This phenotype was almost completely rescued by crossing Patz1+/? with Bcl6+/? mice, indicating a key role for Bcl6 expression in its development. Finally, a significant number of Patz1 knock-out mice (both heterozygous and homozygous) also develop BCL6-expressing lymphomas. Therefore, the disruption of one or both Patz1 alleles may favor lymphomagenesis by activating the BCL6 pathway.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/LPSqCxoGZ2U" height="1" width="1"/>
The transient receptor potential ankyrin 1 (TRPA1) channel is a Ca2+-permeable cation channel whose activation results from a complex synergy between distinct activation sites, one of which is especially important for determining its sensitivity to chemical, voltage and cold stimuli. From the cytoplasmic side, TRPA1 is critically regulated by Ca2+ ions, and this mechanism represents a self-modulating feedback loop that first augments and then inhibits the initial activation. We investigated the contribution of the cluster of acidic residues in the distal C terminus of TRPA1 in these processes using mutagenesis, whole cell electrophysiology, and molecular dynamics simulations and found that the neutralization of four conserved residues, namely Glu1077 and Asp1080–Asp1082 in human TRPA1, had strong effects on the Ca2+- and voltage-dependent potentiation and/or inactivation of agonist-induced responses. The surprising finding was that truncation of the C terminus by only 20 residues selectively slowed down the Ca2+-dependent inactivation 2.9-fold without affecting other functional parameters. Our findings identify the conserved acidic motif in the C terminus that is actively involved in TRPA1 regulation by Ca2+.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/_xJjyrUdSVg" height="1" width="1"/>
Three major laminin and collagen-binding integrins in skin (?6?4, ?3?1, and ?2?1) are involved in keratinocyte adhesion to the dermis and dissemination of skin cells during wound healing and/or tumorigenesis. Knockdown of ?6 integrin in keratinocytes not only results in motility defects but also leads to decreased surface expression of the ?2, ?3, and ?4 integrin subunits. Whereas ?2 integrin mRNA levels are decreased in ?6 integrin knockdown cells, ?3 and ?4 integrin mRNAs levels are unaffected. Expression of either ?6 or ?3 integrin in ?6 integrin knockdown cells restores ?2 integrin mRNA levels. Moreover, re-expression of ?6 integrin increases ?4 integrin protein at the cell surface, which results in an increase in ?3 integrin expression via activation of initiation factor 4E-binding protein 1. Our data indicate that the ?6?4 integrin is a master regulator of transcription and translation of other integrin subunits and underscore its pivotal role in wound healing and cancer.<img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/jbc/SUcv/~4/uy8kKqQ0KyM" height="1" width="1"/>
Posted on 25 May 2012 | 3:36 pm
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